Main 


Lib.  ASRICITLTTOAL  Wfff* 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


Efje  i&ural  Eext-Boofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Carleton :  THE  SMALL  GRAINS. 

B.  M.  Duggar:  THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANT 
PRODUCTION. 

J.  F.  Duggar:   SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 

Gay :  BREEDS  OF  LIVE-STOCK. 

Gay :  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  JUDGING 
LIVE-STOCK. 

Goff:  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  CULTURE. 

Guthrie:  BOOK  OF  BUTTER. 

Harper:  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 

Harris  and  Stewart:  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRON- 
OMY. 

Hitchcock :  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES. 

Jeffery :  TEXT-BOOK  OF  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

Jordan:   FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.     Revised. 

Livingston:  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 

Lyon:   SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

Lyon,  Fippin  and  Buckman :  SOILS,  THEIR 
PROPERTIES  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Mann:  BEGINNINGS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Montgomery :   THE  CORN  CROPS. 

Morgan  :  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT. 

Mumford:  THE  BREEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 

Piper :  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Sampson :  EFFECTIVE  FARMING. 

Thorn  and  Fisk :  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE. 

Warren :   THE  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Warren :   FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

Wheeler:  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

White:  PRINCIPLES  OF  FLORICULTURE. 

Widtsoe :  PRINCIPLES  OF  IRRIGATION  PRAC- 
TICE. 


THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 


BY 


CHARLES   TfHOM 

INVESTIGATOR   IN    CHEESE,    FORMERLY    AT    CONNECTICUT 
AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


AND 


WALTER   W.   FISK 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR    OF    DAIRY    INDUSTRY  (CHEESE-MAKING), 

NEW    YORK    STATE    COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 

AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 


Nefo  gorfc 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1918 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYBIGHT,  1918, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  191? 

/%^<  Cfe/StT 

(/ibrory) 

a  lain   1  n>. 
A^ric.    Dent. 


Xcrtoooti 

J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

CERTAIN  products  we  associate  with  the  manufactures 
of  the  household,  so  familiar  and  of  such  long  standing 
that  we  do  not  think  of  them  as  requiring  investigation 
or  any  special  support  of  science.  The  older  ones  of  us 
look  back  on  cheese  as  an  ancient  home  product;  yet 
the  old-fashioned  hard  strong  kind  has  given  place  to 
many  named  varieties,  some  of  them  bearing  little  resem- 
blance to  the  product  of  the  kitchen  and  the  buttery. 
We  have  analyzed  the  processes;  discovered  micro- 
organisms that  hinder  or  help;  perfected  devices  and 
machines;  devised  tests  of  many  kinds;  studied  the 
chemistry ;  developed  '  markets  for  standardized  com- 
modities. Here  is  one  of  the  old  established  farm  in- 
dustries that  within  a  generation  has  passed  from  the 
housewife  and  the  home-made  hand  press  to  highly  per- 
fected factory  processes  employing  skilled  service  and 
handling  milk  by  the  many  tons  from  whole  communi- 
ties of  cows.  This  is  an  example  of  the  great  changes 
in  agricultural  practice.  Cheese-making  is  now  a  piece 
of  applied  science;  many  students  in  the  colleges  are 
study  ing. the  subject ;  no  one  would  think  of  undertaking 
it  in  the  old  way :  for  these  reasons  this  book  is  written. 

This  book  is  intended  as  a  guide  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  processes  of  making  and  handling  a  series  of  im- 
portant varieties  of  cheese.  The  kinds  here  considered 
are  those  made  commercially  in  America,  or  so  widely 
met  in  the  trade  that  some  knowledge  of  them  is  neces- 


387241 


VI  PREFACE 

sary.  The  relation  of  cheese  to  milk  and  to  its  production 
and  composition  has  been  presented  in  so  far  as  required 
for  this  purpose.  The  principles  and  practices  under- 
lying all  cheese-making  have  been  brought  together  into 
a  chapter  on  curd-making.  A  chapter  on  classification 
then  brings  together  into  synoptical  form  our  knowledge 
of  groups  of  varieties.  These  groups  are  then  discussed 
separately.  The  problems  of  factory  building,  factory 
organization,  buying  and  testing  milk,  and  the  proper 
marketing  of  cheese,  are  briefly  discussed. 

Such  a  discussion  should  be  useful  to  the  student,  to 
the  beginner  in  cheese-making,  as  a  reference  book  on 
many  varieties  in  the  hands  of  makers  who  specialize  in 
single  varieties,  and  to  the  housekeeper  or  teacher  of 
domestic  science.  The  material  has  been  brought  to- 
gether from  the  experience  of  the  writers,  supplemented 
by  free  use  of  the  literature  in  several  languages.  Stand- 
ard references  to  this  literature  are  added  in  the  text. 

No  introduction  to  the  subject  of  cheese  should  fail 
to  mention  the  work  of  J.  H.  Monrad,  who  has  recently 
passed  away.  Mr.  Monrad  never  collected  his  material 
into  a  single  publication,  but  his  contributions  to  cheese- 
making  information,  scattered  widely  in  trade  literature 
over  a  period  of  thirty  years,  form  an  encyclopedia  of  the 
subject. 

Bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  and 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  have  been 
quoted  extensively,  with  citation  of  the  sources  of  the 
material.  Personal  assistance  from  Professor  W.  A. 
Stocking  and  other  members  of  the  Dairy  Department  of 
Cornell  University,  and  C.  F.  Doane  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  is  gladly  acknowledged. 

Students  cannot  learn  out  of  books  to  make  cheese. 


PREFACE  vii 

They  may,  however,  be  aided  in  understanding  the  prob- 
lems from  such  study.  To  make  cheese  successfully  they 
must  have  intimate  personal  touch  with  some  person  who 
knows  cheese.  Sympathetic  relations  with  such  a  teacher 
day  by  day  in  the  cheese-room  are  essential  to  suc- 
cess in  making  cheese  which,  at  its  best,  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  of  food-products. 

THE  AUTHORS. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

GENERAL  STATEMENT  ON  CHEESE   .        .        .        .        .  1-4 

Nature  of  cheese,  1 ;  Cheese-making  as  an  art,  2 ; 
Cheese-making  as  a  science,  3 ;  Problems  in  cheese- 
making,  4 ;  History,  5. 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  CHEESE        .        .        .          5-28 

Factors  affecting  the  quality,  6;  Chemical  com- 
position, 7;  Factors  causing  variation  in  composi- 
tion, 8;  Milk  constituents,  9;  Water,  10;  Fat,  11; 
Casein,  12;  Milk-sugar,  13;  Albumin,  14;  Ash,  15; 
Enzymes,  16 ;  The  flavor  of  feeds  eaten  by  the  cow, 
17 ;  Absorption  of  odors,  18 ;  Effect  of  condition  of 
the  cow,  19;  Bacteria  in  the  milk,  20;  Groups  of 
bacteria  in  milk,  21 ;  Acid  fermentation  of  milk,  22 ; 
Bacterium  lactis-acidi  group,  23;  Colon-aerogenes 
group,  24;  Acid  peptonizing  group,  25;  Bacillus 
bulgaricus  group,  26;  Acid  cocci  or  weak  acid- 
producers,  27;  Peptonizing  organisms,  28;  Inert 
types,  29;  Alkali-producing  bacteria,  30;  Butyric 
fermenting  types,  31 ;  Molds  and  yeasts,  32  ;  Bacterial 
contamination  of  milk,  33  ;  Germicidal  effect  of  milk, 
34 ;  Sources  and  control  of  bacteria  in  milk,  35 ;  The 
cow,  36;  Stable  air,  37 ;  The  milker,  38 ;  Utensils,  39; 
The  factory,  40 ;  The  control  of  bacteria,  41 ;  Fer- 
mentation test,  42 ;  The  sediment  test,  43. 

CHAPTER   III 

COAGULATING  MATERIALS 29-40 

Ferments,  44 ;   Nature  of  rennet,  45 ;   Preparation 
of  rennet  extract,   46;    Pepsin,  47;     Chemistry  of 
ix 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


curdling,  48;  Use  of  acid,  49;  Robertson's  theory, 
50 ;  Rennet  curd,  51 ;  Hammarsten's  theory,  52 ; 
Duclaux  theory,  53 ;  Bang's  theory,  54 ;  Bosworth's 
theory,  55. 

CHAPTER  IV 

LACTIC  STARTERS      .         .        ...       ' .        .        .        .        41-54 

Acidifying  organisms,  56;  Starter,  57;  Natural 
starter,  58;  Commercial  starter  or  pure  cultures, 
59 ;  Manufacturer's  directions,  60 ;  Selecting  milk, 
61;  Pasteurization,  62;  Containers,  63;  Adding 
cultures,  64;  Cleanliness,  65;  "Mother"  starter 
or  startoline,  66;  Examining  starter,  67;  Second 
day's  propagation,  68 ;  Preparations  of  larger  amount 
of  starter,  69 ;  Amount  of  mother  starter  to  use,  70 ; 
Qualities,  71 ;  How  to  carry  the  mother  starter,  72 ; 
Starter  score-cards,  73;  Use  of  starter,  74;  The 
amount  of  starter  to  use,  75 ;  Starter  lot-card,  76. 

CHAPTER  V 

CURD-MAKING  .        . 55-80 

The  composition  of  the  milk,  77  ;  Cheese  color,  78 ; 
The  acidity  factor,  79 ;  Acidity  of  milk  when  received, 
80 ;  The  acid  test,  81 ;  Rennet  tests,  82 ;  Marschall 
rennet  test,  83;  Comparison  of  acid  and  rennet 
test,  84 ;  Control  of  acid,  85 ;  Acidity  and  rennet 
action,  86 ;  Acidity  and  expulsion  of  the  whey,  87 ; 
Acidity  in  relation  to  cheese  flavor,  88 ;  Acidity  in 
relation  to  body  and  texture  of  cheese,  89;  Acidity 
in  relation  to  cheese  color,  90 ;  Control  of  moisture, 
91 ;  Relation  of  moisture  to  manufacture  and 
quality,  92;  Relation  of  moisture  to  acidity,  93; 
Setting  temperature,  94 ;  Strength  of  coagulating 
materials,  95;  Amount  of  coagulating  materials  to 
use,  96 ;  Method  of  adding  rennet,  97 ;  The  curdling 
period,  98 ;  Cutting  or  breaking  the  curd,  99 ;  Curd 
knives,  100;  Heating  or  "cooking,"  101;  Draining, 
102 ;  Application  to  cheese,  103. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTER  VI 

CLASSIFICATION         .         .         .         .         .         . 

Basis  of  classification,  104;  Processed  cheeses, 
105  ;  Whey  cheeses,  106 ;  Soft  and  hard  cheeses,  107 ; 
Relation  of  moisture  to  classes,  108 ;  Relation  of 
heat  to  classes,  109. 


PAGES 

81-88 


CHAPTER  VII 

CHEESES  WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR          ....      89-110 

Skim  series,  110;  Cottage  cheese,  111;  Household 
practice,  112;  Factory  practice,  113;  Buttermilk 
cheese,  114;  Neufchatel  group,  115;  Domestic  or 
American  Neufchatel  cheeses,  116;  The  factory, 
117;  Cans,  118;  Draining  racks,  119;  Cloths,  120; 
Molding  machinery,  121 ;  Milk  for  Neufchatel,  122  ; 
Starter,  123;  Renneting  or  setting,  124;  Draining, 
125;  Cooling  Neufchatel,  126;  Pressing,  127; 
Working  and  salting  Neufchatel,  128 ;  Storage,  129 ; 
Molding,  130;  Skimmed-milk  Neufchatel,  131; 
Baker's  cheese,  132;  Domestic  Neufchatel,  133; 
Partially  skim  Neufchatel,  134 ;  Cream  cheese,  135 ; 
Neufchatel  specialties,  136 ;  Gervais,  137 ;  European 
forms  occasionally  imported,  138. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SOFT  CHEESES  RIPENED  BY  MOLD  .         . 

Hand  cheese  and  its  allies,  139;  Pennsylvania 
pot  cheese,  140 ;  Appetitost  (Appetite  cheese),  141 ; 
Ripened  Neufchatel,  French  process,  142;  The 
Camembert  group,  143 ;  Camembert  cheese,  144 ; 
Description  of  Camembert,  145;  Conditions  of 
making  and  ripening,  146 ;  Outline  of  making  pro- 
cess, 147;  Acidity,  148;  Ripening  the  cheese,  149; 
Composition,  150 ;  Factory,  151 ;  Economic  factors, 
152 ;  French  Brie,  153 ;  Coulommiers,  154. 


111-133 


Xll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   IX 

SOFT  CHEESES  RIPENED  BY  BACTERIA  .... 
The  Isigny  group,  155;  Raffine",  156;  Lieder- 

.  .  kranz  cheese,  157 ;  Limburger  cheese,  158 ;  The 
milk,  159;  Making  the  cheese,  160;  Draining  and 
salting,  161 ;  Ripening,  162 ;  Marketing  and  qualities 
of  Limburger,  163 ;  Yield  and  composition  of  Lim- 
burger, 164 ;  Miinster  cheese,  165. 

CHAPTER  X 

SEMI-HARD  CHEESES  .    • 

The  green  mold  group,  166;  Roquefort  cheese, 
167 ;  Cow's  milk  or  Fagons  Roquefort,  168 ;  Outline 
of  making  Roquefort,  169;  Ripening  of  Roquefort, 
170 ;  Gorgonzola,  171 ;  Stilton  cheese,  172 ;  Gex, 
173;  Bacterially-ripened  series,  174;  Brick  cheese, 
175;  Making  of  brick  cheese,  176;  Ripening  brick 
cheese,  177  ;  Qualities  of  brick  cheese,  178  ;  Composi- 
tion and  yield,  179 ;  Port  du  Salut  cheese,  180. 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  HARD  CHEESES 

The  Danish  group,  181 ;  The  Dutch  group,  182 ; 
Edam  cheese,  183;  Method  of  manufacture,  184; 
Salting  and  curing  Edam,  185;  Equipment  for 
making  Edam  cheese,  186;  Qualities  and  yield  of 
Edam  cheese,  187;  Gouda  cheese,  188;  Method  of 
manufacture,  189;  Equipment  for  Gouda  cheese, 
190;  Composition  and  yield,  191. 

CHAPTER   XII 

CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING 

The  lot-card,  192 ;  The  milk,  193 ;  Ripening  the 
milk,  194;  Setting  or  coagulating,  195;  Cutting, 
196 ;  Heating  or  "cooking"  the  curd,  197 ;  Removing 
the  whey,  198 ;  Hot-iron  test,  199 ;  Firmness  of  the 
curd,  200;  Gathering  the  curd  together,  201; 


PAGES 

134-148 


149-171 


172-183 


184-221 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xiii 


Matting  or  cheddaring,  202 ;  Milling  the  curd,  203 ; 
Salting,  204;  Hooping  the  curd,  205;  Pressing  the 
curd,  206 ;  Dressing  the  cheese,  207 ;  Handling  over- 
ripe and  gassy  milk,  208;  Qualities  of  Cheddar 
cheese,  209. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

COMPOSITION  AND  YIELD  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESED    .         .     222-246 

Composition  of  milk,  whey  and  cheese,  210; 
Relations  of  fat  to  casein  in  normal  milk,  211 ; 
Influence  of  fat  in  milk  on  yield  of  cheese,  212 ;  Fat 
loss  in  cheese-making,  213;  Effect  of  bacterial- 
content  of  milk  on  yield  of  cheese,  214;  Factors 
affecting  the  moisture-content  of  Cheddar,  215 ; 
Variations  of  the  Cheddar  process,  216;  Cheddar- 
type  cheese  from  pasteurized  milk,  217 ;  Club  cheese, 
218;  The  stirred-curd  or  granular  process,  219; 
California  Jack  cheese,  220;  The  washed-curd 
process,  221 ;  English  dairy  cheese,  222 ;  Pineapple 
cheese,  223;  Leyden,  224;  Cheddar  cheese  with 
pimientos,  225;  Sage  cheese,  226;  Skimmed-milk 
cheese,  227;  Full  skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese, 
228;  Half  skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese,  229; 
Yield  and  qualities  of  skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese, 
230. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

CHEDDAR  CHEESE  RIPENING 247-275 

Fat,  231;  Milk-sugar,  232;  The  salts,  233; 
Gases,  234;  Casein  or  proteins,  235;  Causes  of 
ripening  changes,  236 ;  Action  of  the  rennet  extract, 
237;  The  action  of  the  bacteria,  238;  Conditions 
affecting  the  rate  of  cheese  ripening,  239;  The 
length  of  time,  240 ;  The  temperature  of  the  curing- 
room,  241 ;  Moisture-content  of  the  cheese,  242 ;  The 
size  of  the  cheese,  243 ;  The  amount  of  salt  used,  244 ; 
The  amount  of  rennet  extract,  245;  The  influence 
of  acid,  246 ;  Care  of  the  cheese  in  the  curing-room, 


XIV 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


247;  Evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  cheese 
during  ripening,  248;  Paraffining,  249;  Shipping, 
250.  Defects  in  Cheddar  cheese:  Defects  in  flavor, 
251 ;  Feedy  flavors,  252 ;  Acid  flavors,  253 ;  Sweet 
or  fruity  flavors,  254 ;  Defects  in  body  and  texture, 
255;  Loose  or  open  texture,  256;  Dry  body,  25T; 
Gassy  textured  cheese,  258;  Acidy,  pasty  or  soft 
body  and  texture,  259;  Defects  in  color,  260; 
Defects  in  finish,  261.  Cheddar  cheese  judging :  Secur- 
ing the  sample,  262;  How  to  determine  quality, 
263 ;  Causes  of  variations  in  score,  264 ;  The  score- 
card,  265. 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE  Swiss  AND  ITALIAN  GROUPS 

Swiss  cheese:  The  Swiss  factory,  266;  The  milk, 
267 ;  Rennet  extract,  26.8 ;  Starter,  269 ;  The  making 
process,  270 ;  Curing  Swiss,  271 ;  Block  Swiss,  272 ; 
Shipment,  273;  Qualities  of  Swiss  cheese,  274; 
Composition  and  yield,  275 ;  The  Italian  group : 
Parmesan,  276 ;  Regianito,  277. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

MISCELLANEOUS  VARIETIES  AND  BY-PRODUCTS 

Caciocavallo,  278;  Sap  sago,  279;  Albumin 
cheese,  280 ;  Mysost,  Norwegian  whey  cheese,  281 ; 
Whey  butter,  282. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIPMENT,  ORGANI- 
ZATION       ......... 

Locating  the  site,  283 ;  The  building,  284 ;  Heat- 
ing plant,  285;  Curing-rooms,  286;  Light,  287; 
Ventilation,  288;  BoHer-room,  289;  whey  tanks, 
290;  Store-room,  291;  The  floors,  292;  Arrange- 
ment of  machinery  and  rooms,  293 ;  Arrangements 
for  cleanliness,  294 ;  Equipment  and  supplies  list,  295 ; 
Factory  organization,  296. 


276-292 


293-296 


297-310 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XV 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY 
IN  AMERICA        .....  . 

The  factory  system,  297 ;  Introduction  of  factory 
system  in  Canada,  298 ;  Introduction  of  cheddaring, 
299;  Introduction  of  Swiss  and  Limburger,  300; 
Number  and  distribution  of  cheese  factories,  301 ; 
Total  production  of  cheese  in  the  United  States, 
302;  Rank  of  the  leading  cheese-producing  states, 
303;  Exportation  and  importation  of  cheese  by*the 
United  States,  304 ;  Average  yearly  price  of  cheese, 
305;  Canadian  cheese  statistics,  306;  Introduction 
of  cheese-making  into  new  regions,  307. 


311-326 


CHAPTER  XIX 

TESTING 

The  fat  test,  308 ;  Sampling  the  milk,  309 ;  Adding 
the  acid,  310;  Centrifuging,  311;  Reading  the  test, 
312;  testing  whey  for  fat,  313;  testing  cheese  for 
fat,  314;  Reading  the  test,  315;  The  Hart  casein 
test,  316;  Solids  in  the  milk,  317;  the  lactometer, 
318;  Calculating  the  solids  not  fat  in  the  milk,  319; 
Testing  cheese  for  moisture,  320. 


327-342 


CHAPTER  XX 

MARKETING 343-361 

Buying  milk,  321 ;  Cheese  yield  basis  of  buying 
milk,  322;  Fat  basis  for  payment  of  milk,  323; 
Weight  basis  or  pooling  method  for  payment  of 
milk,  324 ;  Fat-plus-two  method  for  payment  of 
milk,  325;  Comparison  of  methods,  326;  Laws 
governing  the  production  and  sale  of  milk,  327; 
Marketing  of  cheese,  328;  Mercantile  exchanges, 
329;  Marketing  perishable  varieties,  330;  Dis- 
tribution of  price,  331 ;  Standards,  332 ;  Laws 
relating  to  cheese  marketing,  333 . 


xvi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 

PAGES 

CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD  ...'..     362-381 

Food  value  of  cheese,  334 ;  Digestibility  of  cheese, 
335;  Cheese  flavor,  336;  Relation  to  health,  337; 
Cheese  poisoning,  338;  Proper  place  in  the  diet, 
339;  Care  of  cheese,  340;  Food  value  and  price, 
341 ;  Methods  and  recipes  for  using  cheese,  342. 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


* 


THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

CHAPTER  I 
GENERAL  STATEMENT  ON  CHEESE 

CHEESE  is  a  solid  or  semi-solid  protein  food  product 
manufactured  from  milk.  Its  solidity  depends  on  the 
curdling  or  coagulation  of  part  or  all  of  the  protein  and 
the  expulsion  of  the  watery  part  or  whey.  The  coag- 
ulum  or  curd  so  formed  incloses  part  of  the  milk-serum 
(technically  whey)  or  watery  portion  of  the  iftilk,  part 
of  the  salts,  part  or  all  of  the  fat,  and  an  aliquot  part 
of  the  milk-sugar.  The  loss  in  manufacture  includes 
a  small  fraction  of  the  protein  and  fat,  the  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  water,  salts  and  milk-sugar. 

1.  Nature  of  cheese.  —  Milk  of  itself  is  an  exceedingly 
perishable  product.  Cheese  preserves  the  most  important 
nutrient  parts  of  the  milk  in  condition  for  consumption 
over  a  much  longer  period.  The  duration  of  this  period 
and  the  ripening  and  other  changes  taking  place  depend 
very  closely  on  the  composition  of  the  freshly  made 
cheese.  There  is  an  intimate  relation  between  the  water, 
fat,  protein  and  salt-content  of  the  newly  made  cheese 
and  the  ripening  processes  which  produce  the  particular 
flavors  of  the  product  when  it  is  ready  for  the  consumer. 
This  relation  is  essentially  biological.  A  cheese  contain- 


BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

ing  60  to  75  per  cent  of  water,  as  in  "  cottage  cheese  " 
(the  sour-milk  cheese  so  widely  made  in  the  homes),  must 
be  eaten  or  lost  in  a  very  few  days.  Spoilage  is  very  rapid. 
In  contrast  to  this,  the  Italian  Parmesan,  with  30  to  32 
per  cent  of  water,  requires  two  to  three  years  for  proper 
ripening. 

The  cheeses  made  from  soured  skim-milk  probably 
represent  the  most  ancient  forms  of  cheese-making. 
Their  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity.  The  makers  of  Roque- 
fort cheese  cite  passages  from  Pliny  which  they  think 
refer  to  an  early  form  of  that  product.  It  is  certain  that 
cheese  in  some  form  has  been  familiar  to  man  throughout 
historic  times.  The  technical  literature  of  cheese-making 
is,  however,  essentially  recent.  The  older  literature  may 
be  cited  to  follow  the  historical  changes  in  details  of 
practice. 

2.  Cheese-making  as  an  art  has  been  developed  to 
high  stages  of  perfection  in  widely  separate  localities. 
The  best  known  varieties  of  cheese  bear  the  geographical 
names  of  the  places  of  their  origin.     The  practices  of 
making  and  handling  such  cheeses  have  been  developed 
in  intimate  relation  to  climate,  local  conditions  and  the 
habits  of  the  people.     So  close  has  been  this  adjustment 
in  some  cases,  that  the  removal  of  expert  makers  of  such 
cheeses  to  new  regions  has  resulted  in  total  failure  to 
transplant  the  industry. 

3.  Cheese-making  as  a  science  has  been  a  compara- 
tively recent  development.     It  has  been  partly  a  nat- 
ural  outgrowth   of  the   desire   of   emigrant   peoples   to 
carry  with  them  the  arts  of  their  ancestral  home,  partly 
the  desire  to  manufacture  at  home  the  good  things  met 
in   foreign   travel.     Its   development   has    been    largely 
coincident  with  the  development  of  the  agricultural  school 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  ON  CHEESE      3 

and  the  science  of  dairy  biology.  Even  now  we  have  but 
a  limited  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the  500  or  more  varieties 
of  cheese  named  in  the  literature.  It  is  desirable  to 
bring  together  the  knowledge  of  underlying  principles  as 
far  as  they  are  known. 

No  technical  description  of  a  cheese-handling  process  can 
replace  experience.  Descriptions  of  appearances  and  tex- 
tures of  curd  in  terms  definite  enough  to  be  understood  by 
beginners  have  been  found  to  be  impossible.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  lay  down  principles  and  essentials  of  practice 
which  are  common  to  the  industry  and  form  the  founda- 
tion for  intelligent  work.  Cheese-making  will  be  a  science 
only  as  we  depart  from  the  mere  repetition  of  a  routine 
or  rule-of-thumb  practice  and  understand  the  underlying 
principles. 

4.  Problems  in  cheese-making.  —  Any  understanding 
of  these  problems  calls  for  a  working  knowledge  of  the 
very  complex  series  of  factors  involved.  These  include 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  milk,  the  nature  of 
rennet  and  character  of  its  action  under  the  conditions 
met  in  cheese-making,  the  nature  of  the  micro-organisms 
in  milk,  and  the  methods  of  controlling  them,  their 
relation  to  acidity  and  to  the  ripening  of  the  cheese. 
To  these  scientific  demands  must  be  added  acquaintance 
with  the  technique  of  the  whole  milk  industry,  from  its 
production  and  handling  on  the  farm  through  the  multi- 
plicity of  details  of  factory  installation  and  organization, 
to  those  intangible  factors  concerned  with  the  texture, 
body,  odor  and  taste  of  the  varied  products  made  from 
it.  Some  of  these  factors  can  be  adequately  described ; 
others  have  thus  far  been  handed  on  from  worker  to 
worker  but  have  baffled  every  effort  at  standardization 
or  definition. 


4  THE  BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

5.  History.  — --The  recorded  history  of  the  common 
varieties  of  cheese  is  only  fragmentary.  Practices  at 
one  time  merely  local  in  origin  followed  the  lines  of 
emigration.  Records  of  processes  of  manufacture  were 
not  kept.  The  continuance  of  a  particular  practice 
depended  on  the  skill  and  memory  of  the  emigrant,  who 
called  his  cheese  after  the  place  of  origin.  Other  names 
of  the  same  kind  were  applied  by  the  makers  for  selling 
purposes.  The  widely  known  names  were  thus  almost 
all  originally  geographical.  Some  of  them,  such  as 
Gorgonzola,  are  used  for  cheeses  not  now  made  at  the 
places  whose  names  they  bear.  Naturally,  this  method 
of  development  has  produced  national  groups  of  cheeses 
which  have  many  common  characteristics  but  differ  in 
detail.  The  English  cheeses  form  a  typical  group  of 
this  kind. 

Emigration  to  America  carried  English  practices  across 
the  Atlantic.  The  story  of  cheese-making  in  America 
has  been  so  closely  linked  with  the  development  of  the 
American  Cheddar  process  that  the  historical  aspects 
of  the  industry  in  this  country  are  considered  under  that 
head  in  Chapter  VIII. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  CHEESE 

THE  opaque  whitish  liquid,  secreted  by  the  mam- 
mary glands  of  female  mammals  for  the  nourishment 
of  their  young,  is  known  as  milk.  The  milk  of  the 
cow  is  the  kind  commonly  used  for  cheese-making  in 
America. 

6.  Factors    affecting    the    quality.  —  The    process    of 
cheese-making  begins  with  drawing  the  milk  from  the 
udder.     The  care  and  treatment  the  milk  receives,  while 
being  drawn,  and  its  subsequent  handling,  have  a  decided 
influence  on  its  qualities.     The  process  of  cheese-making 
is  varied  according  to  the  qualities  of  the  milk.     There 
are  five  factors   that  influence  the  quality  of  the  milk 
for  cheese-making :  (1)  its  chemical  composition ;   (2)  the 
flavor  of  feed  eaten  by  the  cow;    (3)  the   absorption  of 
flavors  and  odors  from  the  atmosphere;    (4)  the  health 
of  the  cow ;   (5)  the  bacteria  present.     The  first  factor  is 
dependent  on  the  breed  and  individuality  of   the  cow. 
The  other  four  factors  are  almost  entirely  within   the 
control  of  man.     Of  these  factors-,  number  five  is  of  the 
most   importance,  and  is  the  one  most  frequently  neg- 
lected. 

7.  Chemical  composition.  —  The  high,  lt>w  and  average 
composition  of  milk  is  approximately  as  follows:* 


6 


THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 


TABLE    I 
COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 


WATER 
PER 
CENT 

FAT 
PER 
CENT 

CASEIN 
PER 

CENT 

SUGAR 
PER 
CENT 

ALBUMIN 
PER 
CENT 

ASH 
PER 
CENT 

High  .  .  . 
Low  .... 

88.90 

85.05 

5.50 
3.00 

3.00 
2.10 

5.00 

4.60 

.72 

.70 

.73 
.70 

Average  .  . 

87.47 

3.80 

2.50 

4.80 

.71 

.72 

8.  Factors  causing  variation  in  composition.  —  The 
composition  of  cow's  milk  varies  according  to  several 
factors.  The  composition  of  the  milk  of  different  breeds 
differs  to  such  a  degree  that  whole  series  of  factories 
are  found  with  lower  or  higher  figures  than  these 
averages  on  account  of  dominant  presence  of  particular 
kinds  of  cattle. 

The  following  table  shows  the  usual  effect  of  breed  on 
fat  and  total  solids  of  milk : 


TABLE   II 

THE  USUAL  EFFECT  OF  BREED  OF  Cows  ON  FAT  AND  TOTAL 
SOLIDS  OF  MILK 


BREED  OF  Cows 

Fat 
Per  Cent 

Total  Solids 
Per  Cent 

Jersey   
Guernsey 

5.62 
5  34 

14.74 
14  70 

Shorthorn 

4  17 

13.41 

Ayrshire    

3.61 

12.72 

Holstein-Friesian 

3  30 

11.89 

AVERAGES 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  CHEESE       7 

The  figures1  in  Tables  I  and  II  are  compiled  and  aver- 
aged from  a  large  number  of  analyses  made  at  different 
agricultural  experiment  stations. 

This  variation  not  only  affects  the  fat,  but  all  con- 
stituents of  the  milk.  While  there  is  a  difference  in  the 
composition  of  the  milk  from  cows  of  different  breeds, 
there  is  almost  as  wide  variation  in  the  composition  of 
the  milk  from  single  cows  2  of  the  same  breed.  With 
the  same  cow  the  stage  of  lactation  causes  a  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  composition  of  the  milk.3  As  the  period  of 
lactation  advances,  the  milk  increases  in  percentage  of 
fat  and  other  solids. 

9.  Milk  constituents.  —  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
cheese-maker,  the  significant  constituents  of  milk  are 


.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  pages  237-241. 

Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  part  II,  pages  52-57. 

Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1886,  pages  119-130. 

Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  pages  97-100. 

Vt.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1891,  pages  61-74. 

N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1892,  pages  299-392. 

N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1893,  pages  39-162. 

Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  pages  115-119. 

Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1907,  pages  152-156. 

N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1891,  pages  139-142. 

N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1894,  pages  31-86,  118-121. 

N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1895,  pages  136-137. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  R.  H.  Shaw.  The  influence  of  breed  and 
individuality  on  the  composition  and  properties  of  milk,  Bur. 
An.  Ind.  Bui.  156,  1913. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  R.  H.  Shaw,  Variations  in  the  composition 
and  properties  of  milk  from  the  individual  cow,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  157,  1913. 

2  Morrow,  G.  A.,  and  A.  G.  Manns,  Analyses  of  milk  from 
different  cows,  111.  Exp:  Sta.  Bui.  9,  1890. 

3  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  R.  H.  Shaw,  The  influence  of  the  stage  of 
lactation  on  the    composition    and    properties    of  milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.   Bui.    155,    1913.     N.   Y.  Exp.   Sta. 
Kept.  1892,  pages  138-140. 


8  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

water,  fat,  casein,  milk-sugar,  albumin,  ash  and  enzymes. 
These  will  be  discussed  separately. 

10.  Water.  —  The  retention  of  the  solids  and  the  elim- 
ination of  the  water  are  among  the  chief  considerations 
in  cheese-making.   Water  forms  84  to  89  per  cent  of  milk. 
Cheese-making  calls  for  the  reduction  of  this  percentage 
to  that  typical  of  the  particular  variety  of  cheese  desired 
with  the  least  possible  loss  of  milk  solids.     This  final 
percentage  varies  from  30  to  70  per  cent  with  the  variety 
of  cheese.     The  water  has  two  uses  in  the  cheese :    (1)  It 
imparts  smoothness  and  mellowness  to  the  body  of  the 
cheese ;   (2)  it  furnishes  suitable  conditions  for  the  action 
of  the  ripening  agents.     To  some  extent  the  water  may 
supplement  or  even  replace  fat  in  its  effect  on  the  texture 
of  the  cheese.     If  the  cheese  is  properly  made,  the  water 
present  is  in  such  combination  as  to  give  no  suggestion 
of  a  wet  or  "  leaky  "  product. 

11.  Fat.  —  Fat  is  present  in  the  milk  in  the  form  of 
suspended  small  transparent  globules  (as  an  emulsion). 
These  globules  vary  in  size  with  the  breed  and  individ- 
uality of  the  cow  and  in  color  from  a  very  light  yellow 
to  a  deep  yellow  shade  as  sought  in  butter.     Milk  with 
small  fat  globules  is  preferred  for  cheese-making,  because 
these  are  not  so  easily  lost  in  the  process.     Milk-fat  is 
made  up  of  several  different  compounds  called  glycerids,1 
which  are  formed  by  the  union  of  an  organic  acid  with 
glycerine  as  a  base. 

Fat  is  important  in  cheese-making  for  two  reasons : 
(1)  Its  influence  on  the  yield  of  cheese;  (2)  its  effect 

1  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1891,  pages  143-162,  316-318. 

Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  pages  238-247. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  Conditions  affecting  the  proportions  of  fat 
and  protein  in  cow's  milk,  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.,  30  (1908), 
no.  7,  pages  1166-1186. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS   RELATION   TO   CHEESE       9 

on  the  quality  of  the  cheese.  Many  of  the  details  of 
cheese-making  processes  have  been  developed  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  fat  in  manufacture.  The  yield  of  cheese  is 
almost  directly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  fat  in  the 
milk;  nevertheless,  because  the  solids  not  fat  do  not  in- 
crease exactly  in  proportion  to  the  fat,  the  cheese  yield 
is  not  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  fat.  The  fat,  however, 
is  a  good  index  of  the  cheese-producing  power  of  the  milk. 
12.  Casein.  —  Cheese-making  is  possible  because  of 
the  peculiar  properties  of  casein.  This  is  the  fundamental 
substance  of  cheese-making  because  it  has  the  capacity 
to  coagulate  or  curdle  under  the  action  of  acid  and  rennet 
enzymes.  Casein  is  an  extremely  complex  organic  com- 
pound.1 Authorities  disagree  regarding  its  exact  com- 
position, but  it  contains  varying  amounts  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  phosphorus  and  sulfur,  and 
it  usually  is  combined  with  some  form  of  lime  or  cal- 
cium phosphate.  It  belongs  to  the  general  class  of 
nitrogen-containing  compounds  called  proteins.  It  is 
present  in  milk  in  the  form  of  extremely  minute  gelat- 
inous particles  in  suspension.  Casein  is  insoluble  in 
water  and  dilute  acids.  The  acids,  when  added,  cause 
a  heavy,  white,  more  or  less  flocculent  precipitate. 
Rennet  (Chapter  III)  causes  the  casein  to  coagulate 
(curdle),  forming  a  jelly-like  mass  called  curd,  which  is 
the  basis  of  manufacture  in  most  types  of  cheese.  In 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  Bosworth,  Composition  and 
properties  of  some  casein  and  paracasein  compounds  and  their 
relations  to  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  26,  1912. 

Forbes,  E.  B.,  and  M.  H.  Keith,  A  review  of  the  litera- 
ture of  phosphorus  compounds  in  animal  metabolism,  Ohio 
Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  5,  pages  32-36,  42-45. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  Bosworth,  Condition  of  casein 
and  salts  in  milk,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  39. 


10  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

the  formation  of  this  coagulum  (curd) ,  the  fat  is  imprisoned 
and  held.  The  casein  compounds  in  the  curd  hold  the 
moisture  and  give  firmness  and  solidity  of  body  to  the 
cheese.  Casein  contains  the  protein  materials  in  which 
important  ripening  changes  take  place.  These  changes 
render  the  casein  more  soluble,  and  are  thought  to  be 
the  source  of  certain  characteristic  cheese  flavors. 

13.  Milk-sugar.  —  Milk-sugar    (lactose)    is  present   in 
solution  in  the  watery  part  of  the  milk.     It  forms  on  the 
average  about  5  per  cent  of  cow's  milk.     Since  it  is  in 
solution,   cheese  retains   the   aliquot  part   of  the   totaj 
represented  by  the  water-content  of  the  cheese,  plus  any 
part  of  the  sugar  which  has  entered  into  combination  with 
the  milk  solids  during  the  souring  process.    The  larger 
part  of  the  lactose  passes  off  with  the  whey.     Lactose1 
is  attacked  by  the  lactic-acid  bacteria  and  by  them  is 
changed  to  lactic  acid.     Cheeses  in  which  this  souring 
process  goes  on  quickly,  soon  contain  a  large  enough 
percentage  of  acid  to  check  the  rotting  of  the  cheese  by 
decay  organisms.     Without  this  souring,  most  varieties 
of  cheese  will  begin  to  spoil  quickly.     For   each  variety 
there  is  a  proper  balance  between  the  souring,  which 
interrupts  the   growth   of  many   kinds   of  putrefactive 
bacteria,  and  the  development  of  the  forms  which  are 
essential  to  proper  ripening. 

14.  Albumin.  —  This  is  a  form  of  protein  which  is  in 
solution   in   the   milk.     Albumin   forms    about    0.7   per 
cent  of  cow's  milk.     It  is  not  coagulated  by  rennet.     Most 
rennet  cheeses,  therefore,  retain  only  that  portion  of  the 
total  albumin  held  in  solution  in  the  water  retained,  as 
in  the  case  of  milk-sugar.     Albumin  is  coagulated  by  heat, 
forming  a  film  or  membrane  upon  the  surface.     There 

1  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1901,  pages  162-166. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE      11 

are  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  such  as  Ricotte,  made  by  the 
recovery  of  albumin  by  heating. 

15.  Ash.  —  The  ash  or  mineral  constituents  make  up 
about  0.7  per  cent  of  cow's  milk.     This  total  includes 
very  small  amounts  of  a  great  many  substances.     The 
exact  form  of  some  of  the  substances  is  still  unknown. 
Of  these  salts,  the  calcium  or  lime  and  phosphorus  salts 
are  most  important  in  cheese-making.     They  are  par- 
tially   or    completely    precipitated    by    pasteurization. 
After  such  precipitation  rennet  fails  to  act *  or  acts  very 
slowly ;  hence  pasteurized  milk  cannot  be  used  for  making 
rennet  cheese  unlesfe  the  lost  salts  are  replaced,  or  the 
condition  of  the  casein  is  changed  by  the  addition  of  some 
substance,  before  curdling  is  attempted. 

16.  Enzymes.  —  Milk  also  contains  enzymes.     These 
are  chemical  ferments  secreted  by  the  udder.     They  have 
the  power  to  produce  changes  in  organic  compounds  with- 
out themselves  undergoing  any  change.     Minute  amounts 
of  several  enzymes  are  found  in  milk  as  follows  :  Diastase, 
galactase,    lipase,    catalase,    peroxidase    and    reductase. 
Just  what  part  they  play  in  cheese-making  is  not  definitely 
known. 

17.  The  flavor  of  feeds  eaten  by  the  cow.  —  Unde- 
sirable flavors  in  the  milk  are  due  many  times  to  the  use 
of  feed  with  very  pronounced  flavors.     The  most  common 
of  these  feeds  are  onions,  garlic,  turnips,  cabbage,  de- 
cayed ensilage,  various  weeds  and  the  like.     These  un- 
desirable flavors  reach  the  milk  because  the  substances 
are  volatile  and  are  able  to  pass  through  the  tissues  of 
the  animal.     While  feed  containing  these  flavors  is  being 
digested,  these  volatile  substances  are  not  only  present 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  and  A.  T.  Bruhn,  The  manufacture  of  cheese 
from  pasteurized  milk,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Research  Bui.  27,  1912. 


12  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

in  the  milk,  but  in  all  the  tissues  of  the  animal.  By  the 
time  the  process  of  digestion  is  completed,  the  volatile 
flavors  have  largely  passed  away.  Therefore,  if  the  times 
of  milking  and  feeding  are  properly  regulated,  a  dairy-man 
may  feed  considerable  quantities  of  strong-flavored  prod- 
ucts, such  as  turnip,  cabbage  and  others,  without  any 
appreciable  effect  on  the  flavor  of  the  milk.  To  ac- 
complish this  successfully,  the  cows  should  be  fed  im- 
mediately before  or  immediately  after  milking,  preferably 
after  milking.  This  allows  time  for  the  digestive  process 
to  take  place  and  for  the  volatile  substances  to  disappear. 
If,  however,  milking  is  performed  three  or  four  hours 
after  feeding,  these  volatile  substances  are  present  in 
the  milk  and  flavor  it.1 

In  the  case  of  those  plants  which  grow  wild  in  the 
pasture,  and  to  which  the  cows  have  continued  access, 
it  is  more  difficult  to  prevent  bad  flavor  in  the  milk. 
The  cows  may  be  allowed  to  graze  for  a  short  time  only, 
and  that  immediately  after  milking,  without  affecting 
the  flavor  of  the  milk.  This  will  make  it  necessary  to 
supplement  the  pasture  with  dry  feed,  or  to  have  another 
pasture  where  these  undesirable  plants  do  not  grow. 

Undesirable  flavors  are  usually  noticeable  in  the  milk 
when  the  cows  are  turned  out  to  pasture  for  the  first 
time  in  the  spring;  and  when  they  are  pastured  on  rank 
fall  feed,  such  as  second  growth  clover. 

18.  Absorption  of  odors.  —  Milk,  especially  when 
warm,  possesses  a  remarkable  ability  to  absorb  and 
retain  odors  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  2  For 

1  Baer,  U.  S.,  and  W.  L.  Carlyle,  Quality  of  cheese  as  affected 
by  food,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  115,  1904. 

2  King,  F.  H.,  and  E.  H.  Farrington,  Milk  odor  as  affected 
by  silage,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  59,  1897. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     13 

this  reason,  the  milk  should  be  handled  only  in  places 
free  from  such  odor.  Some  of  the  common  sources  of 
these  undesirable  odors  are  bad-smelling  stables,  strong- 
smelling  feeds  in  the  stable,  dirty  cows,  aerating  milk 
near  hog-pens,  barn-yards  and  swill  barrels.  The  only 
way  to  prevent  these  undesirable  flavors  and  odors  is 
not  to  expose  the  milk  to  them.  The  safest  policy 
is  to  remove  the  source  of  the  odor. 

19.  Effect  of  condition  of  the  cow.  —  Any  factor  which 
affects  the  cow  is  reflected  in  the  composition  and  physi- 
ological character  of  the  milk.  (1)  Colostrum.  Milk 
secreted  just  before  or  just  after  parturition  is  different 
in  physical  properties  and  chemical  composition  from  that 
secreted  at  any  other  time  during  the  lactation  period. 
This  milk  is  known  as  colostrum.  It  is  considered  unfit 
for  human  food,  either  as  milk  or  in  products  manu- 
factured from  the  milk.  Most  states  l  consider  colostrum 
adulterated  milk,  and  prohibit  the  sale  of  the  product 
for  fifteen  days  preceding  and  for  five  days  after  par- 
turition. (2)  Disease.  When  disease  is  detected  in 
the  cow,  the  milk  should  at  once  be  discarded  as  human 
food.  Some  diseases  are  common  both  to  the  cow  and 
to  man,  such  as  tuberculosis,  foot-and-mouth  disease. 
If  such  diseases  are  present  in  the  cow,  the  milk  may  act 
as  a  carrier  to  man.  Digestive  disorders  of  any  sort  in 
the  cow  are  frequently  accompanied  by  undesirable 
flavors  in  the  milk.  These  are  not  thought  to  be  due 
to  the  feed,  but  to  the  abnormal  condition  of  the  cow. 
When  the  normal  condition  is  restored,  these  undesirable 
flavors  disappear. 

1  N.  Y.  Agricultural  Law,  1913,  section  30. 
Mich.  Agricultural  Law,  1915,  section  77. 
Wis.  Agricultural  Law,  1913,  section  4601. 


14  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

20.  Bacteria  in  the  milk.  —  Bacteria  are  microscopic 
unicellular  plants,  without  chlorophyll.  Besides  bacteria, 
there  are  other  forms  of  the  lower  orders  of  plants  found 
in  milk,  such  as  yeasts  and  molds.  While  the  bacteria 
are  normally  the  more  important,  frequently  yeasts  and 
molds  produce  significant  changes  in  milk  and  other 
dairy  products.  Bacteria  are  very  widely  distributed 
throughout  nature.  They  are  so  small  that  they  may 
easily  float  in  the  air  or  on  particles  of  dust.  Many 
groups  of  bacteria  are  so  resistant  to  adverse  conditions 
of  growth  that  they  may  be  present  in  a  dormant  or  spore 
stage,  and,  therefore,  not  be  easily  recognized ;  when 
suitable  environments  for  growth  are  again  produced, 
development  begins  at  once.  They  are  found  in  all 
surface  water,  in  the  earth  and  upon  all  organic  matter. 
There  are  a  great  many  different  groups  of  bacteria; 
some  are  beneficial,  and  some  are  harmful.  As  they  are 
so  small,  it  is  difficult  to  differentiate  between  the  bene- 
ficial and  harmful  kinds,  except  by  the  results  produced, 
or  by  a  careful  study  in  an  especially  equipped  laboratory. 
The  bacteria  multiply  very  rapidly.  This  is  brought 
about  by  fission ;  that  is,  the  cell-walls  are  drawn  in  at 
one  place  around  the  cell,  and  when  the  walls  unite  at  the 
center,  the  cell  is  divided.  There  are  then  two  bacteria. 
In  some  cases,  division  takes  place  in  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes.  Like  other  plants,  they  are  very  sensitive  to 
food  supply,  to  temperature  and  to  moisture,  as  con- 
ditions of  growth.  Inasmuch  as  the  bacteria  are  plant 
cells,  they  must  absorb  their  food  from  materials  in 
solution.  They  may  live  on  solid  substances,  but  the 
food  elements  must  be  rendered  soluble  before  they  can 
be  used.  Most  bacteria  prefer  a  neutral  or  slightly  acid 
medium  for  growth,  rather  than  an  alkaline  reaction. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE      15 

Ordinary  milk  makes  a  very  favorable  medium  for  the 
growth  of  bacteria,  because  it  is  an  adequate  and  easily 
available  food  supply. 

In  milk,  certain  groups  of  bacteria  are  commonly 
present,  but  many  others  which  happen  to  get  into  it 
live  and  multiply  rapidly.  A  favorable  temperature  is 
very  necessary  for  such  organisms  to  multiply.  There  is 
a  range  of  temperature,  more  or  less  wide,  at  which 
each  group  of  bacteria  grows  and  multiplies  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.  This  range  varies  with  the  different 
groups,  but  most  of  them  find  temperatures  between 
75°  F.  and  95°  F.  the  most  favorable  for  growth.  Ex- 
cessive heat  kills  the  bacteria.  Low  temperatures  stop 
growth,  but  kill  few  if  any  bacteria.  Temperatures  of 
50°  F.  and  lower  retard  the  growth  of  most  forms  of 
bacteria  found  commonly  in  milk.  Many  forms  will 
slowly  develop,  however,  below  50°  and  some  growth 
will  occur  down  to  the  freezing  point.  Milk  held  at  50° 
F.  or  lower  will  remain  in  good  condition  long  enough 
to  be  handled  without  injury  to  quality  until  received  in 
the  cheese  factory.  In  the  place  of  seeds,  some  groups 
of  bacteria  form  spores.  The  spores  are  exceedingly 
resistant  to  unfavorable  conditions  of  growth,  such 
as  heat,  cold,  drying,  food  supply  and  even  chemical 
agents.  This  property  makes  it  difficult  to  destroy  such 
bacteria. 

21.  Groups  of  bacteria  in  milk.  —  Milk  when  first 
drawn  usually  shows  an  amphoteric  reaction;  that  is, 
it  will  give  the  acid  and  alkaline  reactions  with  litmus 
paper.  Under  normal  conditions,  milk  soon  begins  to 
undergo  changes,  due  to  the  bacteria.  Changes  pro- 
duced in  this  way  are  called  "  fermentations  " ;  the 
agents  causing  them,  "ferments."  Normally  the  acid 


16  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

fermentation  takes  place  first,  and  later  other  fermenta- 
tions or  changes  begin,  which,  after  a  time,  so  decom- 
pose the  milk  that  it  will  not  be  suitable  for  cheese- 
making  or  human  consumption. 

The  following  grouping  of  the  organisms  in  milk  is 
based  on  their  effects  on  the  milk  itself l : 

I.  Acid-producing  types. 
II.  Peptonizing  types. 

III.  Inert  types. 

IV.  Alkali-producing  types. 
V.  Butyric  fermenting  types. 

Each  type  of  bacteria  produces  more  or  less  specific 
changes  in  the  milk.  As  a  general  rule,  the  predominance 
of  one  of  these  types  is  an  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
quality  of  the  product  at  the  time  of  analysis,  such  as 
the  age,  the  temperature  at  which  it  has  been  held,  the 
conditions  under  which  it  was  produced  and,  in  some 
cases,  the  general  source  of  the  contamination.  The 
reaction  due  to  certain  bacteria  is  utilized  in  the  manu- 
facture and  handling  of  dairy  products;  other  groups 
have  deleterious  effects.  (See  Fig.  2.) 

1  Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1899,  pages  13-68. 

Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1903,  pages  33-98. 

Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1904,  pages  27-88. 

Esten,  W.  M.,  and  C.  J.  Mason,  Sources  of  bacteria  in  milk, 
Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  51,  1908. 

Rogers,  L.  A.,  and  B.  J.  Davis,  Methods  of  classifying  the 
lactic  acid  bacteria,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  154, 
1912. 

Bergey,  D.  H.,  The  colon-aerogenes  group  of  bacteria,  Jour. 
Med.  Research,  Boston,  Vol.  XIX,  pages  175-200,  1908. 

Conn,  H.  W.,  Classification  of  dairy  bacteria,  Conn.  (Storrs) 
Exp.  Sta.  Rept.  1906. 

Rogers,  L.  A.,  Bacteria  in  milk,  U.  S,  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bui.  490,  1912. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     17 

22.  Acid  fermentation  of  milk.  —  By  far  the  most 
common  and  important  fermentation  taking  place  in 
milk  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid-forming  bacteria 
on  the  milk-sugar  or  lactose.  The  bacteria  that  bring 
about  this  fermentation  may  be  divided  into  several 
groups  on  the  basis  of  their  morphology,  proteolytic 
activity,  gas  production,  temperature  adaptation  and 


FIG.  2.  —  Effect  of  different  fermentations  of  milk:  U,  Curd  pitted  with 
gas  holes ;  G  and  0,  gassy  curds  which  float ;  K,  smooth,  solid 
desirable  curd. 

production  of  substances  other  than  lactic  acid.  The 
larger  number  of  organisms  producing  lactic  acid  in 
milk  also  produce  other  organic  acids  in  greater  or  less 
abundance.  Inasmuch  as  lactic  acid  is  the  principal  sub- 
stance produced,  they  are  called  lactic  acid  organisms. 
This  group  contains  different  kinds  of  organisms  which 
may  be  subdivided  into  small  groups  as  follows : 

(a)  Bacterium  lactis-acidi  group. 

(b)  Bacterium  colon-aerogenes  group. 


18  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

(c)  Acid  peptonizing  group. 

(d)  Bacillus  bulgaricus  group. 

(e)  Acid  cocci  or  weak  acid-producing  group. 

23.  Bacterium    lactis-acidi   group.  —  There  are  many 
strains  or  varieties  in  this  group  which  are  closely  related 
in  their  activities.     They  are  universally  present  in  milk 
and  are  commonly  the  greatest  causal  agent  in  its  souring. 
They  are  widely  distributed  in  nature.     At  a  temperature 
of  65°  F.  to  95°  F.,  these  bacteria  grow  and  multiply  very 
rapidly;    at  70°  F.  (approximately  20°  C.)  these  forms 
usually  outgrow  all  others.     The  total  amount  of  acid 
produced  in  milk  by  these  organisms  varies  from  0.6  of 
one  per  cent   to  1    per   cent   acid   calculated    as    pure 
lactic   acid.     These   forms    coagulate  milk  to  a  smooth 
curd  of  uniform  consistency.     In  addition  to  the  lactic 
acid,  there  are  produced  traces  of  acetic,  succinic,  formic 
and  proprionic    acids,   traces    of  certain  alcohols,  alde- 
hydes   and    esters.     Substances   other    than  lactic  acid 
are  not  produced  by  organisms  of  this  group  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  impart  undesirable  flavors  to  the  milk. 
The  action   of  this  group  on  the  milk  proteins  is  very 
slight.      They   produce   no   visible    sign    of    peptoniza- 
tion.    The  B.  lactis-acidi  group  of  organisms  are  essential 
to  the  production  of  the  initial  acidity  necessary  in  most 
types  of  cheese.     The  practical  culture  and  utilization 
of  them  for  this  purpose  under  factory  conditions  are 
discussed  in  Chapter  IV,  entitled  "  Lactic  Starters." 

24.  Colon-aerogenes    group.  —  This    group    takes    its 
name  from  a  typical  species,  Bacterium  coli  communis, 
which  is  a  normal  inhabitant  of  the  intestines  of  man 
and  animals,  and  from  Bacterium   coli  aerogenes,  which 
is  similar  in  many  respects  to  B.  coli  communis.     The 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     19 

initial  presence  of  these  bacteria  in  milk  is  indicative  of 
fecal  contamination  or  unclean  conditions  of  production. 
These  organisms,  however,  grow  and  develop  in  milk 
very  rapidly  at  high  temperatures  of  handling.  The 
total  acidity  produced  by  these  forms  is  less  than  that  by 
the  Bacterium  lactis-acidi  group.  Of  the  acid  produced, 
less  than  30  per  cent  is  lactic  acid;  the  other  acids  are 
formic,  acetic,  proprionic  and  succinic.  The  large  per- 
centage of  these  acids,  with  comparatively  large  amounts 
of  certain  alcohols,  aldehydes  and  esters,  invariably  im- 
part undesirable  flavors  and  odors  to  the  milk.  Mem- 
bers of  this  group  uniformly  ferment  the  lactose  with  the 
production  of  the  gases,  carbon  dioxide  and  hydrogen. 
The  milk  is  coagulated  into  a  lumpy  curd,  containing  gas 
pockets. 

25.  Acid    peptonizing    group.  —  These    are    often    as- 
sociated   with    colon    organisms.     The    group    includes 
those  bacteria  which  coagulate  milk  with  an  acid  curd 
and  subsequently  partly  digest  it.     They  grow  and  mul- 
tiply rapidly  at  a  temperature  between  65°  and  98°  F. 
They  impart  undesirable  flavors  and  odors  to  the  milk, 
which  appear  to  be  due  to  the  formation  of  acids  other 
than  lactic  acid,  and  to  action  on  the  milk  proteins. 

26.  Bacillus  bulgaricus  group.  —  These  organisms  grow 
best  at  a  temperature  of  105°  to  115°  F.     They  will  de- 
velop at  lower  temperatures,  but  not  so  rapidly.    They 
survive  heating  to  135°  F.  without  loss  of  vigor,  as  occurs 
in  Swiss  cheese-making.     They  produce  from  1  to  4  per 
cent  of  acid  in  milk,  which  is  practically  all  lactic  acid. 
They  do  not  produce  gas.     They  impart  no  undesirable 
flavors  to  the  milk. 

27.  Acid  cocci  or  weak  acid-producers.  —  This  group 
of  organisms  is  not  very  well  defined.     It  consists  mostly 


20  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

of  coccus  forms,  commonly  found  in  the  air  and  in  the 
udder.  Their  presence  in  the  milk  may  indicate  direct 
udder  contamination.  These  are  regarded  as  of  little 
importance,  unless  in  very  large  number,  and  they 
have  been  only  partially  studied.  They  produce  little  or 
no  lactic  acid,  and  small  amounts  of  acetic,  proprionic, 
butyric  and  caproic  acids.  These  forms  rarely  create 
enough  acid  to  coagulate  milk. 

28.  Peptonizing  organisms.  —  This  group  includes  all 
bacteria  which  have  a  peptonizing  effect  on  the  milk. 
It  includes  the  acid  peptonizing  organisms,  although 
they  are  of  primary  importance  in  the  acid  type  of  bac- 
teria, because  the  acid-producing  power  is  greater  than 
the  peptonizing  power.  Some  of  the  specific  organisms 
in  this  class  are  Bacillus  subtilis,  Bacterium  prodigiosus  and 
Bacterium  liquefaciens.  These  are  commonly  found  in 
soil  water  and  in  fecal  material.  The  presence  of  these 
organisms  denotes  contamination  from  such  sources. 
<T  •  29.  Inert  types.  —  As  the  name  indicates,  these  are 
organisms  not  known  to  have  an  appreciable  effect 
on  milk.  The  ordinary  tests  fail  to  connect  them  with 
important  processes;  hence  they  appear  to  feed  upon, 
but  not  to  affect  the  milk  in  any  serious  way.  Milk 
ordinarily  contains  more  or  less  of  these  organisms,  but 
no  particular  significance  is  attached  to  their  presence. 

30.  Alkali-producing  bacteria.  —  This  group  of  organ- 
isms has  only  recently  been  studied  in  relation  to  its 
action  on  milk.     Investigators  still  disagree  as  to  the 
usual  percentage  in  the  normal  milk  flora.     Their  pres- 
ence in  milk  has  been  considered  to  be  relatively  un- 
important. 

31.  Butyric    fermenting    types.  —  Organisms    causing 
butyric  fermentation  may  be  present  in  the  milk,  but 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     21 

seldom  become  active,  because  they  are  commonly  an- 
aerobic and  so  will  not  develop  in  milk  kept  under  ordinary 
conditions,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  lactic  acid-forming 
bacteria  prevents  their  growth.  These  organisms  act 
on  the  milk-fat,  decomposing  it.  Butyric  acid  fermenta- 
tions are  more  common  in  old  butter  and  cheese.  In 
these,  the  fermentation  causes  a  rancid  flavor. 

32.  Molds  and  yeasts.  —  The  cattle  feed  and  the  air 
of  the  barn  always  contain  considerable  numbers  of  yeasts 
and  mold  spores.     Yeasts  have  been  found  by  Hastings 1 
to    cause   an    objectionable   fermentation    in   Wisconsin 
cheese.     No  further  study  of  this  group  as  factors  in 
cheese-handling   has   been   reported.     Mold   spores,   es- 
pecially those  of  the  blue  or  green  molds  (Penicillum  sp.) 
and   the   black  molds   (Mucors),  are   always   abundant 
in  milk.     These  spores  are  carried  into  all  cheeses  made 
from  unpasteurized  milk,  in  numbers  sufficient  to  cover 
the  cheeses  with  mold  if  they  are  permitted  to  grow. 
Pasteurization 2   kills   most   of   them.    The    border-line 
series   commonly   referred    to   as    the   streptothrix-acti- 
nomyces  group  are  also  very  abundant  in  all  forage  and 
are  carried  in  large  numbers  into  all  milk  and  its  products. 

33.  Bacterial   contamination  of  milk.  —  When  drawn 
from  the  cow,  milk  is  seldom  if  ever  sterile.     Organisms 
usually  work  their  way  from  the  tip  of  the  teat  into  the 
udder  and  multiply  there.     The  fore  milk  usually  con- 
tains more  organisms  than  does  that  drawn  later.     Most 
of  the  bacterial  contamination  of  the  milk  is  due  to  the 
handling  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow. 

1  Hastings,  E.  G.,  Distribution  of  lactose-fermenting  yeasts 
in  dairy  products,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  23,  pages  107-115. 

2  Thorn,  C.,  and  S.  H.  Ayers,  Effect  of  pasteurization  upon 
mold  spores,  Jour.  Agr.  Research  6  (1916),  no.  4,  pages  153-156. 


22  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

34.  Germicidal    effect    of    milk.  —  Authorities    agree 
that  when  a  bacterial  examination  of  the  milk  is  made, 
hour  by  hour,  beginning  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn  from  the 
cow,  there  is  no  increase  in  the  number  of  organisms  for 
a  period  of  several  hours  at  first,  but  an  actual  reduction 
not  infrequently  takes  place.     This  is  called  the  "  germi- 
cidal  " 1  property  of  milk.     The  lower  the  temperature 
of  the  milk,  the  longer  and  less  pronounced  is  the  germi- 
cidal  action;    the  higher  the  temperature,  the  shorter 
and  more  pronounced  is  this  action. 

This  is  explained  as  either:  (1)  a  period  of  selection 
within  which  types  of  bacteria  entering  by  accident  and 
unadapted  for  growth  die  off ;  or  (2)  an  actual  weak  anti- 
septic power  in  the  milk-serum  itself ;  or  (3)  the  forming 
of  clusters  by  the  bacteria  and  so  reducing  the  count. 

In  working  on  a  small  scale  or  on  an  experimental 
basis,  this  property  at  times  introduces  a  factor  of 
difficulty  or  error  which  is  not  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the 
selection  of  the  milk  for  such  purposes. 

35.  Sources  and  control  of  bacteria  in  milk.  —  Most 
of  the  bacterial  infection  of  milk  is  due  to  lack  of  care 
in  handling.     Some   of   the   common   sources 2   of   con- 
tamination are :   the  air  in  the  stable ;    the  cow's  body ; 
the  milker;    the  utensils;    the  method  of  handling  the 
milk  after  it  is  drawn  from   the  cow;    unclean   cheese 
factory  conditions. 

1  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Germicidal  action  of  milk,  N.  Y.  (Cornell) 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  197. 

Stocking,  W.  A.,  Germicidal  action  of  milk,  Conn.  (Storrs) 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  37,  1905. 

U.  S.  Treasury  Dept.,  Hygienic  Laboratory,  Bui.  41,  Milk 
and  its  relation  to  the  public  health,  1908,  also  revised  as  Bui. 
56,  1909. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  602,  Dairy  Division,  Pro- 
duction of  clean  milk,  1914. 

Lauder,  A.,  and  A.  Cunningham,  Some  factors  affecting  the 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     23 

Since  bacteria  cause  various  kinds  of  fermentation,  not 
only  in  the  milk  but  in  the  products  manufactured  from 
it,  the  question  of  their  control  is  of  prime  importance. 
There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  bacterial  growth  in  milk 
used  for  cheese-making  may  be  controlled:  (1)  pre- 
vention of  infection ;  (2)  the  retardation  of  their  develop- 
ment when  present.  The  former  is  accomplished  by  strict 
cleanliness,  the  latter  by  adequate  cooling. 

36.  The  cow.  —  The  body  of  the  cow  may  be  a  source 
of  bacterial  contamination.     Bacteria  adhere  to  the  hair 
of  the  animal,  and  to  the  scales  of  the  skin,  and  during 
the  process  of  milking  these  are  very  liable  to  fall  into 
the  milk.     To  prevent  this,  the  cow  should  be  curried  to 
remove  all  loose  material  and  hair.     Just  before  milk- 
ing, the  udder  and  flank  should  be  wiped  with  a  damp 
cloth ;  this  removes  some  of  the  material,  and  causes  the 
remainder  to  adhere  to  the  cow. 

37.  Stable  air.  —  If  the  air  of  the  stable  is  not  clean, 
it  will  be  a  source  of  contamination.     Particles  of  dust 
floating  in  the  air  carry  more  or  less  bacteria,  and  these 
fall  into  the  milk  during  the  process  of  milking.     To 

bacteriological  content  of  milk,  Edinburgh  and  East  of  Scotland 
Coll.  of  Agr.  Kept.  XXVIII,  1913. 

Prucha,  M.  J.,  and  H.  M.  Weeter,  Germ  content  of  milk, 
111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  199,  1917. 

Harding,  H.  A.,  et  al.,  The  effect  of  certain  dairy  opera- 
tions upon  the  germ  content  of  milk,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
365,  1913. 

Fraser,  W.  J.,  Sources  of  bacteria  in  milk,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
91,  1903. 

Frandsen,  J.  H.,  Care  of  milk  and  cream  on  the  farm,  Neb. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  133,  1912. 

Conn,  H.  W.,  The  care  and  handling  of  milk,  Conn.  (Storrs) 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  26,  1903. 

Stocking,  W.  A.,  Jr.,  Quality  of  milk  as  affected  by  certain 
dairy  operations,  Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  42,  1906. 


24  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

keep  the  stable  air  free  from  dust  at  milking  time,  all 
operations  which  stir  up  dust,  such  as  feeding,  brushing 
the  cows,  cleaning  the  floor,  should  be  practiced  after 
milking  or  long  enough  before  so  that  the  dust  will  have 
settled.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  close  the  doors  and  to 
sprinkle  the  floor  just  before  milking. 

38.  The  milker  himself  may  be  a  source  of  contamina- 
tion.    He  should  be  clean  and  wear  clean  clothing.     The 
hands  should  not  be  wet  with  milk  during  milking. 

39.  Utensils.  —  The  utensils  are  an  important  source 
of  bacterial  contamination.     The  bacteria  lodge  in  the 


FIG.  3.  —  Types  of  small-top  milk  pails. 

seams  and  corners  unless  these  are  well-flushed  with  solder. 
From  these  seams  they  are  not  easily  removed.  When 
fresh  warm  milk  is  placed  into  such  utensils,  the  bacteria 
begin  to  grow  and  multiply.  All  utensils  with  which 
milk  comes  in  contact  should  first  be  rinsed  with 
cold  water  and  then  thoroughly  washed  and  finally 
scalded  with  boiling  water,  and  drained  or  blown  absolutely 
dry.  They  should  then  be  placed  in  an  atmosphere 
free  from  dust  until  wanted  for  use  again.  If  an  aerator 
is  used,  this  should  be  operated  in  pure  air,  free  from 
odors  and  dust.  One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  bacterial 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO   CHEESE     25 

contamination  of  cheese  milk  is  the  use  of  the  milk-cans 
to  return  whey  to  the  farms  for  pig  feed.  Frequently, 
sour  whey  is  left  in  the  cans  until  ready  to  feed.  These 
cans  are  then  not  properly  washed  and  scalded.  The 
practice  of  pasteurizing  the  whey  at  the  cheese  factory 
is  a  great  help  in  preventing  this  source  of  infection  and 
the  spreading  of  disease. 

The  use  of  a  small-top  milk  pail 1  is  to  be  especially 
recommended  in  preventing  bacterial  contamination. 
Because  of  the  small  opening,  bacteria  cannot  easily  fall 
into  the  milk  in  as  large  numbers  as  when  the  whole  top 
of  the  pail  is  open.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

If  a  milking  machine2  is  used,  great  care  must  be 
exercised  to  see  that  all  parts  that  come  in  contact 
with  the  milk  are  cleaned  after  each  milking,  and  then 
put  in  a  clean  place  until  ready  to  use  again. 

40.  The  factory.  — .  Another  source  of  contamination 
is  the  cheese  factory  itself.     The  cheese-maker  should 
keep  his  factory  in  the  cleanest  condition  possible,  not 
only  because  of  the  effect  on  the  milk  itself,  but  as  a  stim- 
ulus for  the  producers  to  follow  his  example.     All  doors 
and  windows  in  the  factory  should  be  screened  to  keep 
out  flies. 

41.  The  control  of  bacteria.  —  If,  in  spite  of  preven- 
tive measures,  bacteria  get  into  the  milk,  their  growth 
can  be  retarded  by  controlling  the  temperature.     If  the 
temperature  of  the  milk,  as  soon  as  drawn,  can  be  reduced 

1  Harding,  H.  A.,  J.  K.  Wilson  and  G.  A.  Smith,  Tests  of 
covered  milk  pails,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  326,  1910. 

Stocking,  W.  A.,  Tests  of  covered  milk  pails,  Conn.  (Storrs) 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  48,  1907. 

2  Wing,  L.  W.,  Milking  machines ;  their  sterilization  and  their 
efficiency  in  producing  clean  milk,  N.  Y.   (Cornell)  Exp.  Sta. 
Circ.  18,  1913. 


26  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

below  that  at  which  the  bacteria  grow  and  multiply 
rapidly,  it  will  retard  their  development.  In  general, 
all  milk  should  be  cooled  to  50°  F.  or  below.  In  cooling 
the  milk,  it  should  not  be  exposed  to  dust  or  odors.  One 
of  the  best  methods  of  cooling  is  to  set  the  can  containing 
the  milk  into  a  tub  of  cold  running  water,  and  then  stir. 
If  running  water  is  not  available,  cold  well-water  *  may  be 
used,  but  the  water  should  be  changed  several  times. 
If  the  milk  is  not  stirred  during  the  cooling  process,  it 
will  not  cool  so  rapidly,  because  the  layer  of  milk  next 
the  can  will  become  cold  and  act  as  an  insulator  to  the 
remainder  in  the  center  of  the  can. 

One  way  to  destroy  many  of  the  bacteria  in  milk  is  by 
pasteurization.  This  consists  in  heating  the  milk  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  bacteria  are  killed,  and  then  quickly 
cooling  it.  After  pasteurization,  the  milk  is  so  changed 
that  some  kinds  of  cheese  cannot  be  made  successfully. 

42.  Fermentation  test.  —  When  a  cheese-maker  is 
having  trouble  with  gas  in  his  cheese,  or  bad  flavors,  he 
can  generally  locate  the  source  of  difficulty.  This  can 
be  done  by  making  a  small  amount  of  cheese  from  each 
patron's  milk,  called  a  fermentation  test.2  Pint  or 
quart  fruit  jars  or  milk  bottles  make  suitable  containers. 
They  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded,  to  be 
sure  they  are  clean  and  sterile,  and  then  covered  to  pre- 
vent contamination.  As  the  milk  is  delivered  to  the 
factory,  a  sample  is  taken  of  each  patron's  milk.  The  best 
way  to  secure  the  sample  is  to  dip  the  sterile  jar  in  the 
can  of  milk  as  delivered  and  fill  two-thirds  full  of  milk. 

^uddick,  J.  A.,  and  G.  H.  Barr,  The  cooling  of  milk  for 
cheese  making,  Ottawa  t)ept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  22,  1910. 

2Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1895,  pages  14-150,  Fermentation 
test  for  gas-producing  bacteria  in  milk.  This  is  commonly 
called  the  Wisconsin  curd  test. 


THE  MILK  IN  ITS  RELATION   TO  CHEESE     27 


The  jars  are  then  set  in  water  at  110°  F.  to  bring  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  to  98°  F.  The  jar  should  be  kept 
covered.  A  sink  or  wash-tub  makes  a  convenient  place 
in  which  to  keep  the  jars.  When  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  is  98°  F.,  ten  drops  of  rennet  extract  or  pepsin  is  added 
to  each  jar.  A  uniform  temperature  of  98°  F.  should 
be  maintained  in  the  jars.  This  will  necessitate  the 
addition  of  warm  water  occasionally  to  the  water  sur- 
rounding the  jars.  When  the  milk  is  coagulated,  the 
curd  is  broken  up  with  a  sterile  knife.  Precaution  should 
be  taken  to  sterilize  the 
knife  after  using  it  in  one 
jar  before  putting  it  into 
another.  The  best  way 
to  do  this  is  to  hold  the 
knife  for  a  minute  in  a 
pail  of  boiling  water,  after 
taking  it  out  of  each  jar. 
The  same  precaution 
should  be  observed  with 
the  thermometer.  Unless 
care  is  taken,  contamina- 
tion is  liable  to  be  carried  from  one  jar  to  the  other.  After 
cutting,  the  whey  is  poured  off.  The  temperature  should 
be  kept  at  98°  F.  so  that  the  organisms  will  have  a  suitable 
temperature  for  growth.  The  whey  should  be  poured 
from  the  jars  occasionally,  usually  about  every  half  hour. 
As  the  fermentation  takes  place,  different  odors  will 
be  noticed  in  different  jars.  In  ten  to  twelve  hours  the 
jar  should  be  finally  examined  for  odors  and  the  curd 
taken  out  and  cut  to  examine  it  for  gas  pockets.  By 
this  means,  bad  flavors  and  gas  in  the  cheese  can  be 
traced  to  their  sources. 


FIG.  4.  —  A  gang  sediment  tester,  one 
tester  removed. 


28 


THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 


43.  The  sediment  test.  —  The  presence  of  solid  material 
or  dirt  in  the  milk  is  always  accompanied  by  bacterial 
contamination.  By  means  of  the  sediment  test,  the 
amount  of  solid  material  can  be  determined.  The  test 
consists  of  filtering  the  milk  through  a  layer  of  cotton ; 
the  foreign  material  is  left  on  the  cotton  filter.  Various 
devices  for  filtering  the  milk  have  been 
manufactured.  (Figs.  4  and  5.)  In 
order  to  be  able  to  compare  the  filters 
from  the  different  dairy-men's  milk,  the 
same  amount  of  each  patron's  milk  is 
filtered,  usually  about  a  pint.  These 
tests  are  usually  made  once  or  twice  a 
month  at  the  factory  and  the  filters 
placed  on  a  card  where  the  dairy-men 
can  see  them.  Much  improvement  in 
the  quality  of  the  milk  has  been  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  sediment  test. 

FIG.  5.  —  A  single  sedi-    m,  «     ,  .  ,  , 

ment  tester.  * ne  purpose  oi  this  test  may  be  and 

often  is  defeated  by  the  use  of  effi- 
cient strainers.  Milk  produced  in  an  unclean  way  may  be 
rendered  nearly  free  from  sediment  if  carefully  strained. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  strainer  takes  out 
only  the  undissolved  substances  and  that  bacteria  and 
soluble  materials  which  constitute  a  very  large  part 
of  the  filth  pass  through  with  the  milk. 


CHAPTER  III 
COAGULATING  MATERIALS 

AT  the  present  time,  two  substances  are  used  to  coag- 
ulate milk  for  cheese-making,  —  rennet  extract  and  com- 
mercial pepsin.1  Many  substances  will  coagulate  milk, 
such  as  acids  and  other  chemicals.  Enzymes  in  certain 
plants  will  also  coagulate  it. 

The  curing  or  ripening  of  the  cheese  seems  to  depend 
on  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  the  curd,  on 
the  activity  of  certain  organisms  and  on  enzymes  pro- 
duced by  them  or  in  the  milk.  Rennet  extract  and 
pepsin  are  the  only  known  substances  which  will  produce 
curd  of  such  character  as  will  permit  the  desired  ripening 
changes  to  take  place.  Until  recently,  rennet  extract 
was  principally  used  to  coagulate  the  milk,  but  because 
of  the  scarcity,  pepsin  is  now  being  substituted. 

44.  Ferments.  —  Many  of  the  common  changes  tak- 
ing place  in  milk  are  due  to  fermentations.  The  souring 
of  milk  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  cases  of  fermentation. 

1  Stevenson,  C.,  Pepsin  in  cheesemaking,  Jour.  Agr.  (New 
Zeal.)  14  (1917),  pages  32-34. 

Todd,  A.,  and  E.  C.  V.  Cornish,  Experiments  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  homemade  rennet,  Jour.  Bd.  Agr.  (London)  23  (1916), 
no.  6,  pages  549-555. 

Besana,  C.,  Lack  of  coagulating  ferment  in  cheesemaking, 
Staz.  Sper.  Agr.  Ital.  49  (1916),  pages  10-12. 

Van  Dam,  W.,  Rennet  economy  and  substitutes,  Verslag. 
Ver.  Exploit.  Proefzuivelboerderij.  Hoorn,  1914,  pages  45-46. 

29 


30  THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 

The  important  change  taking  place  is  the  formation  of 
lactic  acid  from  the  milk-sugar.  The  change  is  brought 
about  by  certain  living  organisms,  namely,  the  lactic  acid- 
forming  bacteria.  Another  familiar  case  of  fermentation 
is  the  coagulation  of  milk  by  rennet  extract  or  pepsin. 
In  this  case,  the  change  is  produced  by  a  chemical  sub- 
stance, not  a  living  organism.  Fermentation  may  be 
defined  as  a  chemical  change  of  an  organic  compound 
through  the  action  of  living  organisms  or  of  chemical 
agents. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  ferments :  (1)  living 
organisms,  or  organized  ferments;  (2)  chemical,  or  un- 
organized ferments.  Organized  ferments  are  living  micro- 
organisms, capable,  as  a  result  of  their  growth,  of  causing 
the  changes.  Unorganized  ferments  are  chemical  sub- 
stances or  ferments  without  life,  capable  of  causing 
marked  changes  in  many  complex  organic  compounds, 
while  the  enzymes  themselves  undergo  little  or  no  change. 
These  unorganized  ferments  are  such  as  rennin,  pepsin, 
trypsin,  ptyalin.  The  rennet  and  pepsin  must,  there- 
fore, be  very  thoroughly  mixed  into  the  milk  to  insure 
complete  and  uniform  results,  because  they  act  by  con- 
tact, and  theoretically,  if  they  could  be  recovered,  might 
be  used  over  and  over  again.  Practically,  the  amount 
used  is  so  small  a  percentage  that  recovery  would  be 
impractical  even  if  possible. 

45.  Nature  of  rennet.  —  Two  enzymes  or  ferments 
are  found  in  rennet  extract,  rennin  and  pepsin.  They  are 
prepared  from  the  secreting  areas  of  living  membranes 
of  the  stomachs  of  mammalian  young.  For  rennet- 
making,  these  stomachs  are  most  valuable  if  taken  before 
the  young  have  received  any  other  feed  than  milk.  Ren- 
nin at  this  stage  appears  to  predominate  over  pepsin 


COAGULATING  MATERIALS  31 

which  is  already  secreted  to  some  extent.  With  the 
inclusion  of  other  feed,  the  secretion  of  pepsin  comes  to 
predominate.  Rennin  has  never  been  separated  entirely 
from  pepsin.  Both  of  these  enzymes  are  secreted  by 
digestive  glands  in  the  same  area,  perhaps  even  by  the 
same  glands.  They  are  so  closely  related  that  many 
workers  have  regarded  them  as  identical.  In  practical 
work  the  effectiveness  of  rennet  preparations  has  been 
greatest  when  stomachs  which  have  digested  feed  other 
than  milk  are  excluded.  The  differences,  therefore, 
however  difficult  to  define,  appear  to  be  important  in 
the  commercial  preparation  of  rennet. 

It  was  the  practice  until  a  few  years  ago  for 
each  cheese-maker  to  prepare  his  own  rennet  extract. 
Each  patron  was  supposed  to  supply  so  many  rennets. 
Now  commercial  rennet  extract  and  pepsin  are  on  the 
market ;  however,  some  Swiss  cheese-makers  prefer  to 
make  their  own  rennet  extract.  For  sheep's  and  goat's 
milk  cheese,  some  makers  hold  that  rennet  made  from  kid 
or  lamb  stomachs  is  best  for  handling  the  milk  of  the 
respective  species.  The  objection  to  the  cheese-maker 
preparing  his  own  rennet  extract  is  that  it  varies  in 
strength  from  batch  to  batch  and  is  liable  to  spoil 
quickly.  Taints  and  bad  odors  and  flavors  develop 
in  it  and  so  taint  the  cheese. 

46.  Preparation  of  rennet  extract.  —  This  extract  may 
be  manufactured  commercially  from  digestive  stomachs 
of  calves,  pigs  or  sheep.  An  animal  is  given  a  full  meal 
just  before  slaughtering ;  this  stimulates  a  large  flow  of 
the  digestive  juices,  containing  the  desired  enzymes. 

The  stomach  is  taken  from  the  animal,  cleaned,  com- 
monly inflated  and  dried.  It  may  be  held  in  the  dry  con- 
dition until  needed  for  use.  Such  stomachs  are  usually 


32  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

spoken  of  as  "  rennets  "  in  the  trade.  Such  old  rennets 
may  be  seen  to-day  hanging  from  the  rafters  of  some  of 
the  older  cheese  factories.  When  wanted  for  use,  rennets 
are  placed  in  oak  barrels  and  covered  with  water.  Before 
placing  them  in  the  barrel,  they  are  cut  open  so  that  the 
water  may  have  easy  access.  Salt  is  usually  added  to 
the  water  at  the  rate  of  3  to  5  per  cent.  They  are  stirred 
and  pounded  in  this  solution  from  five  to  seven  days. 
At  the  end  of  this  time,  they  are  wrung  through  a  clothes- 
wringer  to  remove  the  liquid.  The  rennets  are  put  back 
into  a  fresh  solution  of  salt  and  water,  the  object  being 
to  obtain  all  the  digestive  juices  possible.  They  are 
usually  soaked  from  four  to  six  weeks.  At  the  end  of 
this  time,  most  of  the  digestive  juices  will  have  been  re- 
moved. The  liquid  portion  is  passed  through  a  filter 
made  of  straw,  charcoal  and  sand.  When  clean,  an  excess 
of  salt  is  added  to  preserve  it. 

Such  extracts  cannot  be  sterilized  by  heat  because 
the  necessary  temperature  would  destroy  the  enzyme. 
Effective  disinfectants  cannot  be  used  in  food  products. 
The  extract,  therefore,  should  be  kept  cool  to  retard  bac- 
terial growth.  The  extract  is  kept  in  wooden  barrels, 
stone  jugs  or  yellow  glass  bottles  to  protect  it  from  light, 
which  is  able  to  destroy  its  activity.  Rennet  extract 
should  be  clear,  with  a  clean  salty  taste  and  a  distinct 
rennet  flavor.  There  should  be  no  cloudy  appearance 
and  no  muddy  sediment  in  properly  preserved  rennet. 
Rennet  extract  is  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  a  liquid 
and  a  powder,  the  former  being  much  more  common. 
The  commercial  forms  of  rennet  have  the  advantage  in 
the  skill  used  in  their  preparation  and  standardization. 
The  combined  product  from  large  numbers  of  stomachs 
may  not  be  as  effective  a  preparation  as  the  most  skillfully 


COAGULATING  MATERIALS  33 

produced  sample  from  the  very  choicest  single  stomach, 
but  it  gives  a  uniformity  of  result  which  Improves  the 
average  product  greatly. 

47.  Pepsin.  —  Pepsin    is    on    the    market    in    several 
commercial  forms,  as  a  liquid,   scale  pepsin  and  in  a 
granular  form  known  as  spongy  pepsin.     Some  commer- 
cial concerns  put  out  a  preparation  which  is  a  mixture 
of  rennet  extract  and  commercial  pepsin. 

48.  Chemistry  of  curdling.  —  The  chemistry  of  casein  l 
and  of  curd  formation  under  the  influence  of  acid  and 
rennet  extract  and  pepsin  has  been  the  subject  of  many 
years'  research.     While  many  points  remain   unsettled, 
the  general  considerations  together  with  a  large  mass  of 
accepted  facts  may  be  presented  and  some  of  the  unsolved 
problems  pointed  out  as  left  for  future  researches. 

Casein  is  a  white  amorphous  powder,  practically 
insoluble  in  water.  It  is  an  acid  and  as  such  readily 
dissolves  in  solutions  of  the  hydroxides  or  the  carbonates 
of  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  by  forming  soluble  salts. 

Pure  casein  salt  solutions  and  fresh  milk  do  not 
coagulate  on  boiling,  but  in  the  presence  of  free  acid 
coagulation  may  take  place  below  the  boiling  temperature. 

1  The  paragraphs  on  the  chemistry  of  casein  and  on  rennet 
action  have  been  selected  from  a  complete  discussion  of  the 
subject  by  E.  B.  Forbes  and  M.  H.  Keith  in  Ohio  Exp.  Sta. 
Tech.  Bui.  5  entitled,  "A  review  of  the  literature  of  phosphorus 
compounds  in  animal  metabolism."  The  original  references 
cited  in  this  discussion  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  in  the 
order  of  their  citation  in  the  text. 

See  also,  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  D.  D.  Van  Slyke,  I,  The 
action  of  dilute  acids  upon  casein  when  no  soluble  compounds 
are  formed;  II,  The  hydrolyses  of  the  sodium  salts  of  casein, 
N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  3,  pages  75-162,  1906. 

Sammis,  J.  L.,  S.  K.  Suzuki  and  F.  W.  Laabs,  Factors  control- 
ling the  moisture  content  of  cheese  curds,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur. 
An.  Ind.  Bui.  122,  pages  1-61,  1910. 


34  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

The  coagulum  formed  in  the  case  of  milk  includes  fat 
and  calcium  phosphate.  The  slight  pellicle  which  coats 
over  milk  when  it  is  warmed  is  of  the  same  composition. 

49.  Use  of  acid.  —  A  commonly  accepted  explanation 
of  the  precipitation  of  casein  by  acids  is  that  the  casein  is 
held  in  solution  by  chemical  union  with  a  base  (lime  in 
the  case  of  milk) ;    that  added  acid  removes  the  base, 
allowing  the   insoluble   casein  to  precipitate;  and   that 
excess  of  acid  unites  with  casein,  forming  a  compound 
which  is  more  or  less  readily  soluble. 

50.  Robertson's    theory.  —  According   to    Robertson's 
conception,  in  a  soluble  solution  of  a  protein  or  its  salt, 
the  molecules  of  the  protein  unite  with  each  other  to  a 
certain  extent,  in  this  way  forming  polymers.     The  re- 
action is  reversible,  and  the  point  of  equilibrium  between 
the    compound    and    its   polymeric    modification    varies 
under  the   influence   of  whatever  condition   affects   the 
concentration  of  the  protein  ions.     Addition  of  water, 
or  of  acid,  alkali  or  salt,  or  the  application  of  heat  has 
such  an  effect,  and  consequently  alters  the  relative  num- 
ber of  heavier  molecule-complexes.     Robertson's  experi- 
ments give  evidence  that  one  of  the  effects  of  increase 
of  temperature  on  a  solution  of  casein  is  a  shifting  of  the 
equilibrium   in  the   direction   of  the  higher   complexes. 
He  explains  coagulation  as  being  a  result  of  these  molec- 
ular aggregates  becoming  so  large  as  to  assume  the  prop- 
erties of  matter  in  mass  and  to  become  practically  an 
unstable  suspension  and  then  a  precipitate.     The  acid 
curd  then  is  casein  or  some  combination  of  casein  with 
the  precipitant  acid. 

51.  Rennet  curd.  —  Rennet  extract  and  pepsin  coagu- 
lation differs  from  coagulation  by  acids,  and  cannot  be 
looked  on  as  a  simple  removal  of  the  base  from  a  caseinate. 


COAGULATING  MATERIALS  35 

The  presence  of  soluble  calcium  salts  (or  other  alkaline 
earth  salts)  seems  to  be  essential,  and  the  precipitate 
formed  is  not  casein  or  a  casein  salt,  but  a  salt  of  a  slightly 
different  nucleoalbumin  called  "  paracasein."  Many 
writers,  following  Halliburton,  call  this  modification 
produced  by  rennin  the  "  casein  "  and  that  from  which 
it  is  derived,  "  caseinogen."  Foster  and  a  few  others 
have  used  the  term  "  tyrein  "  for  the  rennet  clot. 

A  number  of  investigations  have  been  made  on  the 
conditions  essential  or  favorable  to  formation  of  the 
coagulum,  especially  with  regard  to  the  effects  of  the 
degree  of  acidity  and  of  conditions  affecting  the  amount 
of  calcium  present,  either  as  free  soluble  salt  or  bound  to 
the  casein.  Soluble  salts  of  calcium,  barium  and  stron- 
tium favor  or  hasten  coagulation,  while  salts  of  ammonium, 
sodium  and  potassium  retard  or  prevent  coagulation. 

The  bulk  of  the  coagulum  from  milk  is  a  calcium  para- 
caseinate,  but  it  carries  down  with  it  calcium  phosphate 
and  fat,  both  of  which  bodies  have  been  helped  to  remain 
in  their  state  of  suspension  in  milk  by  the  presence  of 
the  casein  salt.  Lindet  (1912)  has  concluded  that  about 
one-half  of  the  phosphorus  contained  in  the  rennet  curd 
is  in  the  form  of  phosphate  of  lime  (probably  tricalcic), 
the  other  half  being  organically  combined  phosphoric 
acid. 

52.  Hammarsten's  theory.  —  According  to  Hammar- 
sten  (1877,  1896),  whose  view  has  been  commonly  held, 
the  distinctive  effect  of  the  ferment  is  not  precipitation 
but  the  transformation  of  casein  into  paracasein.  This 
is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  if  rennet  be  allowed  to  act 
on  solutions  free  from  lime  salts  no  precipitate  occurs; 
but  there  is  an  invisible  alteration  of  the  casein,  for  now, 
even  if  the  ferment  be  destroyed  by  boiling  the  solution, 


36  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

addition  of  lime  salts  will  cause  immediate  coagulation. 
(See  also  Spiro,  1906.)  Hence  the  process  of  rennet 
coagulation  is  a  two-phase  process ;  the  first  phase  is  the 
transformation  of  casein  by  rennin,  the  second  is  the 
visible  coagulation  caused  by  lime  salts. 

Furthermore,  if  the  purest  casein  and  the  purest  rennin 
were  used,  Hammarsten  always  found  after  coagulation 
that  the  filtrate  contained  very  small  amounts  of  a  pro- 
tein. This  protein  he  designated  as  the  "  whey  protein." 

In  accordance  with  these  observations,  Hammarsten 
(1911)  explains  the  rennin  action  "  as  a  cleavage  process, 
in  which  the  chief  mass  of  the  casein,  sometimes  more 
than  90  per  cent,  is  split  off  as  paracasein,  a  body  closely 
related  to  casein,  and  in  the  presence  of  sufficient  amounts 
of  lime  salts  the  paracasein-lime  precipitates  out  while 
the  proteose-like  substance  (whey-protein)  remains  in 
solution." 

By  continued  action  of  rennin  on  paracasein,  a  further 
transformation  has  been  found  in  several  cases  (Petry, 
1906;  Van  Herwerden,  1907;  Van  Dam,  1909),  but 
perhaps  due  to  a  contamination  of  the  rennin  with  pep- 
sin, or  to  the  identity  of  these  two  enzymes.  The  action 
which  forms  paracasein  and  whey-protein  takes  place 
in  a  short  time  (Hammarsten,  1896;  Schmidt-Nielson, 
1906).  The  composition  and  solubilities  of  paracasein 
have  received  considerable  attention.  (See  Loevenhart, 
1904;  Kikkoji,  1909;  Van  Slyke  and  Bosworth,  1912.) 
It  is  more  readily  digested  by  pepsin-hydrochloric  acid 
than  is  casein  (Hosl,  1910). 

53.  Duclaux  theory.  —  Duclaux  (1884)  and  Loeven- 
hart (1904)  and  others  do  not  accept  Hammarsten's 
theory ;  but  to  most  workers  it  seems  probable,  at  least, 
that  the  action  of  the  rennin  is  to  cause  a  cleavage  of 


COAGULATING  MATERIALS  37 

casein  with  formation  of  paracasein.  However,  the 
chemical  and  physical  differences  observed  between  casein 
and  paracasein  appear  to  be  so  slight  that  Loevenhart 
and  some  others  think  that  they  are  only  physical,  per- 
haps differences  in  the  size  of  the  colloid  or  solution 
aggregates.  Loevenhart  conceives  of  a  large  part  of  the 
work  of  the  rennet  (or  of  the  acid,  in  acid  and  heat  coagu- 
lation) as  being  a  freeing  of  the  calcium  to  make  it  avail- 
able for  precipitation.  Some  think  that  the  aggregates  of 
paracasein  are  larger  than  those  of  casein,  but  there  is 
more  evidence  of  their  being  smaller,  which  idea  cor- 
responds with  the  findings  of  Bosworth,  though  he  looks 
on  the  change  as  a  true  cleavage. 

54.  Bang's  theory.  —  Another  description  of  the  pre- 
cipitation is  given  by  Bang  (1911),  who  studied  the  prog- 
ress of  the  coagulation  process  by  means  of  interruptions 
at  definite  intervals.     His  observations  confirm  the  idea 
that   rennin    causes    the   formation   of   paracasein,    and 
that  the  calcium  salt  serves  only  for  the  precipitation  of 
the  paracasein ;   the  rennin  has  to  do  also  with  the  mo- 
bilizing of  lime  salts.     According  to  Bang,  before  coagu- 
lation occurs,  paracaseins  with  constantly  greater  affinity 
for  calcium  phosphate  are  produced.     These  take  up  in- 
creasing amounts  of  calcium  phosphate,   until  finally  the 
combination  formed  can  no  longer  remain  in  solution. 

55.  Bosworth's  theory.  —  By  a  very  recent  work  of 
L.  L.  Van  Slyke  and  A.  W.  Bosworth  (Van  Slyke  and 
Bosworth,  1912,    1913;   and   Bosworth  and  Van  Slyke, 
1913),  in  which  ash-free  casein  and  paracasein  were  com- 
pared as  to  their  elementary  composition,  and  as  to  the 
salts  they  form  with  bases,  and  the  properties  of  these 
salts,  it  is  indicated  that  the  two  compounds  are  alike  in 
percentage  composition  and  in  combining  equivalent,  the 


38  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

paracasein  molecule  being  one-half  of  the  casein  mole- 
cule. Moreover,  Bosworth  (1913)  has  shown  that,  if  the 
rennin  cleavage  be  carried  out  under  conditions  which 
avoid  autohydrolysis,  no  other  protein  is  formed ;  also 
that,  if  the  calcium  caseinate  present  be  one  containing 
four  equivalents  of  calcium,  the  paracaseinate  does  not 
precipitate,  save  in  the  presence  of  a  soluble  calcium 
salt,  while,  if  the  calcium  caseinate  be  one  of  two  equiva- 
lents of  base,  rennin  does  cause  immediate  coagulation. 
Bosworth  concludes  that  the  rennin  action  is  a  cleavage 
(probably  hydrolytic)  of  a  molecule  of  caseinate  into  two 
molecules  of  paracaseinate,  the  coagulation  being  a 
secondary  effect  due  to  a  change  in  solubilities,  dicalcium 
paracaseinate  being  soluble  in  pure  water  but  not  in  water 
containing  more  than  a  trace  of  calcium  salt,  and  the  mono- 
calcium  caseinate  being  insoluble  in  water.  The  alkali 
paracaseinates,  as  well  as  casemates,  are  soluble.  This 
explanation  seems  to  promise  to  harmonize  the  observa- 
tions with  regard  to  acidity  and  the  effects  of  the  presence 
of  soluble  salts.  This  theory  represents,  therefore,  many 
years  of  continuous  work  at  the  New  York  Experiment 
Station  centered  primarily  on  American  Cheddar  cheese. 
Disputed  points  remain  for  further  study  but  these 
workers  have  contributed  much  toward  a  clear  descrip- 
tion of  the  chemical  constitution  of  casein  as  affected  by 
rennet  action  and  bacterial  activity. 

The  investigations  of  these  authors  and  of  Hart  with 
regard  to  the  changes  which  the  paracasein,  the  calcium 
and  the  phosphorus  undergo  during  the  ripening  of  cheese 
(Van  Slyke  and  Hart,  1902,  1905 ;  Van  Slyke  and  Bos- 
worth, 1907,  1913;  Bosworth,  1907)  contributed  to  this 
interpretation. 


COAGULATING  MATERIALS  39 

BANG,  IVAK,  Ueber  die  chemische  Vorgang  bei  der  Milchgerin- 

nung  durch  Lab,  Skand.  Arch.  Physiol.  25,  pages  105-144 ; 

through  Jahresb.  u.  d.  Fortsch.  d.  Thierchem.  41,  pages 

221-222,  1911. 
BOSWORTH,  A.  W.,  The  action  of  rennin  on  casein,  N.  Y.  Exp. 

Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  31,  1913. 
BOSWORTH,   A.   W.,    Chemical   studies   of   Camembert   cheese, 

N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  5,  1907. 

BOSWORTH,  A.  W.,  and  L.  L.  VAN  SLYKE,  Preparation  and  com- 
position   of    basic    calcium    caseinate    and    paracaseinate, 

Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  Vol.  14,  pages  207-210,  1913. 
DUCLAUX,   EMILE,  Action  de    la   presure   sur  le  lait,   Compt. 

Rend.  Acad.  Sci.  98,  pages  526-528,  1884. 
HAMMARSTEN,  OLOF,  Zur  Kenntnis  des  Caseins  und  der  Wirkung 

des  Labfermentes,  Nova.  Acta  Regiae  Soc.  Sci.  Upsaliensis 

in  Memoriam  Quattuor  Saec.  ab  Univ.,  Upsaliensi  Perac- 

torum,  1877. 
HAMMARSTEN,  OLOF,  Ueber  das  Verhalten  des  Paracaseins  zu 

dem  Labenzyme,  Zeit.  physiol.  Chem.  22,  pages  103-126, 

1896. 
HAMMARSTEN,  OLOF,  A  text  book  of  physiological  chemistry, 

from  the  author's  7th  German  edition,  1911. 
HOSL,  J.,  Unterschiede  in  der  tryptischen  und  peptischen  Spal- 

tung  des  Caseins,  Paracaseins  und  des  Paracaseinkalkes  aus 

Kuh-  und  Ziegenmilch,  Inaug.  Diss.  Bern.,  31  pp.,  1910. 
KIKKOJI,  T.,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  Caseins  und  Paracaseins, 

Zeit.  physiol.  Chem.  No.  61,  pages  130-146,  1909. 
LINDET,  L.,  Solubilite  des  albuminoides  du  lait  dans  les  elements 

du  serum ;  retrogradation  de  leur  solubilite   sous    1'influ- 

ence   du  chlorure,  Bui.  Soc.  Chim.  (ser.  4)  13,  pages  929— 

935. 
LINDET,  L.,  Sur  les  elements  mineraux  contenus  dans  la  caseine 

du  lait,  Rep.  Eighth  Internat.  Congr.  of  Applied  Chem.  19, 

199-207,  1912. 
LOEVENHART,   A.   S.,   Ueber   die   Gerinnung   der   Milch,   Zeit. 

physiol.  Chem.  41,  pages  177-205,  1904. 
PETRY,   EUGEN,   Ueber  die   Einwirkung  des   Labferments  auf 

Kasein,  Beitrage  z.  Chem.  Physiol.  u.  Path.  8,  pages  339- 

364,  1906. 
ROBERTSON,  T.  BRAILSFORD,  On  the  influence  of  temperature 

upon  the  solubility  of  casein  in  alkaline  solutions,  Jour. 

Biol.  Chem.  5,  pages  147-154,  1908. 
SCHMIDT-NIELSON,  SIGVAL,  Zur  Kenntnis  des  Kaseins  und  der 

Labgerinnung,  Upsala  lakaref.  Forh.  (N.  F.)  No.  11,  Suppl. 


40  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Hammarsten  Festschrift  No.  XV,  1-26 ;  through  Jahresb. 
u.  d.  Fortschr.  d.  Thierchem.  No.  36,  pages  255-256,  1906. 

SPIRO,  K.,  Beeinflussung  und  Natur  des  Labungsvorganges, 
Beitrage  z.  Chem.  Physiol.  u.  Path.  8,  pages  365-369,  1906. 

VAN  DAM,  W.,  Ueber  die  Wirkung  des  Labs  Auf .  Paracaseinkalks, 
Zeit.  physiol.  Chem.  No.  61,  pages  147-163,  1909. 

VAN  HERWERDEN,  M.,  Beitrag  zur  Kenntnis  der  Labwirkung 
auf  Casein,  Zeit.  physiol.  Chem.  52,  pages  184r-206,  1907. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  I.  Some  of  the  first 
chemical  changes  in  Cheddar  cheese.  II.  The  acidity  of 
the  water  extract  of  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech. 
Bui.  4,  1907. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Composition  and 
properties  of  some  casein  and  paracasein  compounds  and 
their  relations  to  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  26, 
1912. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Composition  and 
properties  of  some  casein  and  paracasein  compounds  and 
their  relations  to  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  26, 
1912. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Method  of  preparing 
ash-free  casein  and  paracasein,  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  Vol.  14, 
pages  203-206,  1913. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Preparation  and  com- 
position of  unsaturated  or  acid  caseinates  and  paracaseinates, 
Ibid.  Vol.  14,  pages  211-225,  1913. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Valency  of  molecules 
and  molecular  weights  of  casein  and  paracasein,  Ibid.  Vol. 
14,  pages  227-230,  1913. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  BOSWORTH,  Composition  and  prop- 
erties of  the  brine-soluble  compounds  in  cheese,  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  14,  pages  231-236,  1913. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  HART,  A  study  of  some  of  the  salts 
formed  by  casein  and  paracasein  with  acids;  their  rela- 
tions to  American  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  214, 
1902. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  HART,  Casein  and  paracasein  in 
some  of  their  relations  to  bases  and  acids,  American  Chem. 
Jour.  33,  pages  461-996,  1905. 

VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  HART,  Some  of  the  relations  of 
casein  and  paracasein  to  bases  and  acids,  and  their  applica- 
tion to  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  261,  1905. 


CHAPTER  IV 
LACTIC  STARTERS 

ACIDITY  in  cheese-making  arises  almost  exclusively 
from  the  lactic  acid  produced  from  the  fermentation  of 
milk-sugar  (lactose)  by  bacteria.  Hydrochloric  acid 
is  used  in  the  Wisconsin  l  process  of  making  pasteurized 
milk  cheese  and  sometimes  for  making  skimmed-milk  curd 
for  baking  purposes.  It  is  regularly  used  in  precipitat- 
ing casein  not  for  food  but  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

56.  Acidifying  organisms.  —  Many  species  of  bacteria 
have  been  shown  to  possess  the  power  to  produce  lactic 
acid  by  fermenting  lactose.  In  practice,  however,  the 
cheese-maker  seeks  to  control  this  fermentation  by  the 
actual  introduction  of  the  desired  organisms  and  by  the 
production  of  conditions  which  will  insure  this  dominance 
through  natural  selection.  For  this  purpose  the  initial 
souring  for  most  types  of  cheeses  is  produced  by  some 
variety  of  the  species  originally  described  by  Esten 2 
and  commonly  referred  to  as  Bacterium  lactis-acidi,  but 
variously  named  as  B.  acidi-lactici,  Streptococcus  lacticus, 
B.  guntheri  by  different  authors.  Organisms  of  this 
series  dominate  all  other  species  in  milk  which  is  in- 

1  Sammis,  J.    L.,   and    A.    T.   Bruhn,    The   manufacture   of 
Cheddar  cheese  from  pasteurized  milk,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Research 
Bui.  27,  1912. 

2  Esten,  W.  M.,  Bacteria  in  the  dairy,  Conn.  (Storrs)  Kept. 
1896,  pages  44-52. 

41 


42  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

cubated  at  70°  F.  They  produce  a  smooth  solid  mass 
without  a  sign  of  gas  holes  and  without  the  separation 
of  whey  from  the  curd,  and  develop  in  milk  a  maximum 
acidity  of  about  0.90  of  one  per  cent  when  titrated  as 
lactic  acid.  (For  titration  see  Chapter  V.)  This  species 
is  usually  present  in  small  numbers  in  fresh  milk.  There 
are  many  varieties  or  strains  of  the  species  with  differing 
rates  of  activity  and  measurable  differences  in  acid  pro- 
duced but  with  approximately  the  same  qualitative 
characters.  Most  commercial  starters  for  cheese-  and 
butter-making  belong  to  this  group  of  species,  although 
special  mixtures  with  other  organisms  are  prepared 
for  special  purposes.  In  addition  to  this  group,  most 
varieties  of  cheese  contain  some  members  of  the  colon- 
aerogenes  group.  When  the  milk  is  in  proper  condition, 
the  activity  of  this  group  should  be  held  in  check  by  the 
early  and  rapid  development  of  acid.  Free  development 
of  members  of  this  group  usually  shows  itself  in  the 
presence  of  gas  holes  in  the  curd. 

57.  Starter.  —  The    practice    of    using    pure    cultures 
in  cheese-making  has  brought   about  the  development 
of  factory  methods  of  producing  day  by  day  cultures  of 
the  organisms  desired,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  inoculate 
the  total  quantity  of  milk  used   in   manufacture.     For 
this  purpose  milk  is  mostly  used  and  the  product  is  known 
as    "  starter."     For   cheese-making   purposes,    a   starter 
is  a  substance  used  in  the  manufacture  of  dairy  products 
having   a   predominance   of   lactic   acid-forming    micro- 
organisms in  an  active  state.     There  are  two  general 
classes  of  starter:    (1)  Natural  starter;    (2)  commercial 
starter. 

58.  Natural  starter.  —  Milk,  or  other  similar  substance, 
which  has  become  sour  or  in  which  large  numbers  of 


LACTIC  STARTERS  43 

lactic  acid-forming  organisms  are  present,  is  called  a 
natural  starter  when  used  in  the  manufacture  of  dairy 
products.  To  secure  clean-flavored  milk,  the  cheese- 
maker  usually  selects  the  milk  of  some  producer  who 
usually  brings  good  milk  and  allows  it  to  sour  natu- 
rally for  use  the  next  day.  There  is  often  a  variation 
from  day  to  day  in  the  milk  delivered  by  the  same 
producer,  so  that  the  cheese-maker  is  not  certain  of  a 
uniform  quality  in  his  fundamental  material.  While 
the  lactic  acid-forming  organisms  are  developing,  other 
organisms  may  also  be  present  in  numbers  sufficient  to 
produce  bad  flavors.  If  a  starter  has  any  objectionable 
flavor,  it  should  not  be  used.  Natural  starters  very 
commonly  develop  objectionable  flavors  which  at  first 
are  very  difficult  to  recognize.  When  natural  starters 
with  objectionable  but  not  easily  recognizable  odors  are 
used,  the  effect  may  be  seen  on  the  cheese.  Milk,  sour 
whey  and  buttermilk  are  materials  commonly  used  as 
natural  starter.  A  common  difficulty  in  skimmed-milk 
cheese  is  caused  by  the  use  of  buttermilk  as  a  starter. 

59.  Commercial  starter  or  pure  cultures.  —  The  alter- 
native practice  consists  in  the  introduction  of  pure  cul- 
tures of  known  strains  of  lactic  bacteria  into  special  milk 
to  make  the  starter.  Since  these  cultures  must  be  pre- 
pared by  a  bacteriologist,  commercial  laboratories  have 
developed  a  large  business  in  their  production.  Many 
such  commercial  brands  are  manufactured  under  trade- 
marked  names.  Some  of  these  cultures  represent  races 
of  lactic  bacteria  cultivated  and  cared  for  efficiently,  hence 
uniformly  valuable  over  long  periods  of  time.  Others  care- 
lessly produced  are  worthless,  or  even  a  peril  to  the  user. 

These  organisms  are  usually  shipped  in  small  quantities 
in  bottles  of  liquid  or  powder,  or  in  capsules  of  uniform 


44  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

size.  The  contents  may  be  either  the  culture  medium 
upon  which  the  organisms  grew  or  inert  substance  designed 
merely  to  hold  the  bacteria  in  inactive  form.  In  either 
solid  or  liquid  form,  the  producer  of  the  culture  should 
guarantee  its  activity  up  to  a  plainly  stated  date. 

It  is  the  problem  1  of  the  cheese-maker  or  butter-maker 
to  increase  this  small  amount  of  lactic  acid-forming  or- 
ganisms to  such  numbers  and  in  such  active  condition 
that  it  may  be  used  in  the  factory;  while  being  built 
up,  these  organisms  must  be  kept  pure.  The  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  allow  them  to  develop  in  some  material,  usually 
whole  milk  or  skimmed-milk ;  dissolved  milk  powder  may 
be  used  in  the  place  of  milk. 

60.  Manufacturer's    directions.  —  The     manufacturer 
usually    sends    directions    with    his  starter  preparation, 
telling  how  it  should  be  used  to  secure  the  best  result. 
These  directions  apply  to  average  conditions  and  must  be 
varied  to  suit  the  individual  instances  so  that  a  good 
starter  will  be  the  result.     The  directions  usually  state 
the  amount  of  milk  necessary  for  the  first  inoculation. 
It  is  usually  a  small  amount,  one  or  two  quarts.     After 
the  specific  amount  has  been  selected,  this  milk  should 
be  pasteurized. 

61.  Selecting   milk.  —  The   milk   for   use   in   starter- 
making  should  be  selected  with  very  much  care.     Only 
clean-flavored  sweet  milk,  free  from  undesirable  micro- 

1  Bushnell,  L.  D.,  and  W.  R.  Wright,  Preparation  and  use  of 
butter  starter,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246,  1907. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  Preparation  and  use  of  starter,  Wis.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  181,  1909. 

Larsen,  C.,  and  W.  White,  Preparation  and  use  of  starter, 
S.  D.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  123,  1910. 

Guthrie,  E.  S.,  and  W.  W.  Fisk,  Propagation  of  starter  for 
butter-making  and  cheese-making,  N.  Y.  (Cornell)  Exp.  Sta. 
Circ.  13,  1912. 


LACTIC  STARTERS  45 

organisms,  should  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  starter. 
The  milk  is  ordinarily  chosen  from  a  producer  whose 
milk  is  usually  in  good  condition.  The  quality  of  the 
milk  can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the  fermentation 
test.  (See  Chapter  II.)  It  is  better  to  choose  only 
the  morning's  milk  for  the  making  of  starter,  because 
the  bacteria  have  not  had  so  much  opportunity  to 
develop.  In  no  case  should  the  mixed  milk  be  used  in 
the  preparation  of  starter,  as  this  eliminates  all  oppor- 
tunity for  selection.  The  flavor  of  the  starter  will  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  milk  from  which  it  is  made. 

62.  Pasteurization  is  the  process  of  heating  to  a  high 
temperature  for  a  given  length  of  time  and  quickly  cool- 
ing.     It    kills    most    of    the    micro-organisms    in    the 
milk.      In  other  words,  it  makes  a  clean  seed-bed  for 
the  pure  culture.     The   temperatures  of  pasteurization 
recommended  for  starter-making  differ  with  the  authority. 
A  temperature  of  180°  F.  for  thirty  minutes  or  longer 
seems  to  be  very  satisfactory,  since  under  these  condi- 
tions nearly  all  the  micro-organisms  in  the  milk  are  killed. 

63.  Containers.  —  Various    kinds    of    containers    may 
be  used  for  starter-making.     One-quart  glass  fruit  jars  or 
milk  bottles  make  very  satisfactory  containers,  because 
the  condition  of  the  starter  may  be  seen  at  any  time. 
They   are   also   easily   cleaned.     They  have   the  disad- 
vantage, however,   of  being  easily  broken,  if  the  tem- 
perature  is    suddenly   changed,    or    if    severely   jarred. 
Tin  containers  may  also  be  used.     Such  containers  are 
not  easily  broken,  but  they  are  harder  to  clean  and  must 
be  opened  to  examine  the  contents;    hence  the  liability 
of  contamination  is  very  much  greater. 

This  small  amount  of  milk  may  be  pasteurized  by  plac- 
ing the  container  in  water  heated  to  the  desired  tempera- 


46  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

ture.  A  very  satisfactory  arrangement  is  to  cut  off  a 
barrel,  and  place  a  steam  pipe  in  it.  The  barrel  can  then 
be  filled  partly  full  of  water  and  heated  by  steam.  The 
bottles  of  milk  to  be  pasteurized  are  hung  in  the  water  in 
the  barrel.  Two  or  three  more  bottles  should  be  prepared 
than  it  is  expected  will  be  used  as  some  of  the  bottles 
are  liable  to  be  broken  while  cooling  or  heating.  The 
bottles  should  be  filled  about  two-thirds  full.  This  leaves 
room  enough  to  add  the  mother  starter  and  later  to  break 
up  the  starter  to  examine  it.  It  is  desirable  not  to  have 
the  milk  or  starter  touch  the  cover  since  contaminations 
are  more  likely.  It  is  a  good  plan  when  pasteurizing  to 
have  one  bottle  as  a  check.  This  may  be  filled  with 
water  and  left  open  and  the  thermometer  placed  in  it. 
A  uniform  temperature  may  be  obtained  by  shaking  the 
bottles. 

64.  Adding  cultures.  —  After  being  pasteurized,  the 
milk  should  be  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  This 
is  a  suitable  temperature  for  the.  development  of  the 
lactic  acid-forming  organisms.  The  commercial  or  pure 
culture  should  now  be  added  to  the  milk  at  the  rate 
specified  in  the  directions.  Care  should  be  exercised  in 
opening  bottles  not  to  put  the  covers  in  an  unclean  place. 
A  sterile  dipper  is  a  good  place  to  put  them.  After  the 
culture  has  been  added  to  the  milk,  it  should  be  mixed 
thoroughly  by  shaking  the  bottle.  This  should  be  re- 
peated every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  for  four  or  five 
times.  This  is  done  to  make  certain  that  the  culture 
is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk.  The  milk  should 
be  placed  in  a  room  or  incubator  as  near  80°  F.  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  have  a  uniform  temperature  for  the 
growth  of  the  organisms.  The  bacteria  in  the  pure 
culture  are  more  or  less  dormant  so  that  a  somewhat 


LACTIC  STARTERS  47 

higher  temperature  than  the  ordinary  is  necessary  to 
stimulate  their  activity.  This  milk  should  be  coagulated 
in  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours,  depending  largely  on 
the  uniformity  of  the  temperature  during  incubation. 

65.  Cleanliness.  —  To  produce  a  good  starter,  great 
care   should    be   exercised    that   all   utensils    coming   in 
contact  with   the  milk  are  sterile.      After  the  milk  is 
in    the    container    in    which    the    starter    is    made,    it 
should    be    kept    covered    as    continuously    as   possible. 
Thermometers  should  not  be  put  into  it  to  ascertain  the 
temperature.     When  examining  the  starter,  do  not  dip 
into  it,  but  pour  out,  as  this  prevents  contamination. 
The  cover,  when  removed  from  the  container,  should  be 
put  in  a  sterile  place  in  such  way  that  the  dirt  will 
not  stick  to  it  and  later  get  into  the  starter. 

66.  "  Mother  "  starter  or  startoline.  —  The  thickened 
sour  milk  obtained  by  inoculating  the  sweet  pasteurized 
milk  with  pure  culture  of  lactic  acid-forming  bacteria 
is  known  as  "  mother  starter  "  or  "  startoline." 

67.  Examining  starter.  —  This   starter  should   be  ex- 
amined carefully  as  to  physical  properties,  odor  and  taste. 
The  coagulation  should  be  smooth,  free  from  whey  and 
gassy  pockets  or  bubbles.     Sometimes  the  first  few  in- 
oculations from  a  new  culture  will  show  signs  of  gas, 
but,  usually,  this  will  quickly  disappear,  and  not  injure 
the  starter.     It  should  have  a  clean  sour  cream  odor  and 
clean,  mild,  acid  flavor.     After  breaking  up  it  should  be 
thick  and  creamy,  entirely  free  from  lumps.     This  starter 
may  have  an  objectionable  flavor,  due  to  the  media  in 
which  the  organisms  were  growing  when  shipped.     In 
such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  carry  the  starter  one  or  two 
propagations    to    overcome    the   flavor,    to    enliven    the 
micro-organisms  and  to  secure  the  quantity  desired. 


48 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


68.  Second  day's  propagation.  —  For  the  second  day, 
the  milk  for  the  starter  is  selected  as  on  the  first  day. 
It  is  pasteurized,  and  this  time  cooled  to  70°  F.  The 
milk  is  cooled  a  trifle  colder  the  second  day  than  the 
first,  because  the  organisms  have  become  more  active 
and  hence  do  not  require  as  high  a  temperature  to  grow. 
Instead  of  inoculating  with  powder,  as  was  done  the 
first  day,  the  mother  starter  prepared  the  first  day  is 
used.  This  requires  only  a  very  small  amount,  perhaps 
a  tablespoonful  to  a  quart  bottle.  It  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  milk.  This  starter  may  have  the 

flavor  of  the  media  used  in 
the  laboratory  culture, 
therefore  may  need  to  be 
carried  one  or  two  days 
more  to  eliminate  it.  After 
the  flavor  has  become  nor- 
mal, the  mother  starter  is 
ready  for  commercial  use. 


69.  Preparation  of  larger 
amount  of  starter.  —  The 
first  thing  to  determine  is 
the  quantity  of  starter  re- 
quired. As  much  milk 
should  be  carefully  chosen 
as  the  amount  of  starter 
desired.  This  milk  should 
then  be  pasteurized.  An 

improved  starter-can  (Fig.  6)  may  be  used  in  the  pas- 
teurization of  the  milk  and  the  making  of  starter,  or 
a  milk-can  (Fig.  7)  placed  in  a  tub  of  water  in  which 
there  is  a  steam  pipe.  The  former  requires  mechanical 
power  to  operate  the  agitator,  but  the  latter  can  be  used 


FIG.  6.  —  An  improved  starter-can. 


LACTIC  STARTERS 


49 


FIG.  7.  —  A   simple    device   for 
preparation  of  starter. 


the 


where  mechanical  power  is  not  available.     In  the  latter 
the  milk  and  starter  are  stirred  by  hand.     This  is  the 
kind    of    apparatus   more 
often     found     in     cheese 
factories. 

If  possible,  this  milk 
should  be  pasteurized  to 
180°  F.  for  thirty  minutes ; 
this  kills  most  of  the  bac- 
teria and  spores.  The 
milk  should  be  cooled  to 
60°-65°  F.,  the  tempera- 
ture of  incubation.  This 
temperature  may  be  varied 
with  conditions,  so  that 
the  starter  will  be  ready  for  use  at  the  desired  time. 
The  higher  the  temperature,  the  less  time  is  required  to 
ripen  the  starter. 

70.  Amount  of  mother  starter  to  use.  —  The  mother 
starter  prepared  the  day  before  is  now  used  to  inoculate 
the  starter  milk.  The  amount  to  use  will  depend  on : 

1 .  Temperature  of  milk  when  mother  starter  is  added ; 

2.  Average  temperature  at  which  the  milk  will  be  kept 
during  the  ripening  period ; 

3.  Time  allowed  for  starter  to  ripen  before  it  is  to  be  used ; 

4.  Vigor   and   acidity   of   the   mother   starter   added. 
There  is  a  very  wide  range  as  to  the  amount  of  mother 
starter  required,  from  0.5  of  one  per  cent  to  10  per  cent 
being  used  under  different  conditions. 

Some  operators  prefer  to  add  the  mother  starter  while 
the  milk  is  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.,  before  it  has 
been  cooled  to  the  incubating  temperature.  This  reduces 
the  amount  of  mother  starter  necessary. 


50  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

If  an  even  incubating  temperature  can  be  maintained, 
it  will  require  less  mother  starter  than  if  the  temperature 
goes  down. 

If  the  ripening  period  is  short,  it  will  require  a  larger 
amount  of  mother  starter,  than  if  the  ripening  period  is 
longer.  If  the  starter  has  a  low  acidity  or  weak  body 
indicating  that  organisms  'are  of  low  vitality,  it  will  re- 
quire more  mother  starter. 

71.  Qualities.  —  The  starter,  when  ready  to  use,  may 
or  may  not  be  coagulated ;   a  good  idea  of  the  quality  of 
the  starter  may  be  gained  by  the  condition  of  the  coagu- 
lation.    The  coagulation  should  be  jelly-  or  custard-like, 
close  and  smooth,  entirely  free  from  gas   pockets    and 
should  not  be  wheyed  off. 

When  broken  up,  the  starter  should  be  of  a  smooth 
creamy  texture  and  entirely  free  from  lumpiness  or 
wateriness.  It  should  have  a  slightly  pronounced  acid 
aroma.  The  starter  should  be  free  from  taints  and  all 
undesirable  flavors;  the  flavor  should  be  a  clean,  mild 
acid  taste. 

72.  How  to  carry  the  mother  starter.  —  Some  mother 
starter  must  be  carried  from  day  to  day  to  inoculate 
the  large  starter.     This  may  be  carried  or  made  in  several 
ways : 

1.  Independently;    By  this  method  a  mother  starter 
is  made  and  carried  entirely  separately  from  the  large 
starter.     It  requires  more  time  and  work,  but  is  by  far 
the  best  method.     With  a  good  mother  starter,  there  is 
not  so  much  danger  of  the  larger  starter  becoming  poor 
in  quality. 

2.  Mother  starter  may  be  made  by  dipping  pasteurized 
milk  from  that  prepared  for  the  large  starter  with  sterile 
jars    and    then    inoculating    these   jars    separately.     By 


LACTIC   STARTERS  51 

this  method,  if  the  milk  selected  for  the  large  starter  is 
poor,  the  mother  starter  for  the  next  day  will  be  the  same. 
It  is  very  difficult  by  this  method  to  carry  a  uniform, 
high  quality  mother  starter. 

There  is  danger  that  the  container  used  for  the  mother 
starter  may  not  be  sterile,  and  there  is  also  danger  of 
contamination  in  transferring  the  milk. 

3.  Another  practice  is  to  hold  over  some  of  the  large 
starter  used  to-day  for  mother  starter.  This  is  by  far 
the  easiest  method.  By  this  practice,  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty of  the  quality  of  the  starter,  because  there  is  little 
or  no  control  of  the  mother  starter.  If  the  large  starter 
is  for  some  reason  not  good,  there  is  no  separate  reserve 
of  mother  starter  on  which  to  rely. 

73.  Starter  score-cards.  —  The  use  of  a  score-card  tends 
to  analyze  the  observations  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize 
all  the  characteristics  desired  in  the  starter.  Such  an 
analysis  seeks  to  minimize  the  personal  factor  and  pro- 
duce a  standardization  of  the  quality.  The  score-card 
finally  reduces  the  qualities  of  the  starter  to  a  numerical 
basis  for  ease  of  comparison.  Many  score-cards  have 
been  proposed  but  the  one  preferred  by  the  authors  is 
that  used  by  the  Dairy  Department  of  the  New  York 
State  College  of  Agriculture,  which  is  as  follows : 

CORNELL  SCORE-CARD 

Flavor 50       Clean,  desirable  acid. 

Aroma 20  Clean,  agreeable  acid.  No  undesir- 
able aroma. 

Acidity 20       0.6  per  cent-0.8  per  cent. 

Body 10  Before  breaking  up:  jelly-like,  close, 

absence  of  gas  holes.  No  free 
whey.  After  breaking  up : 
smooth,  creamy,  free  from  gran- 
ules or  flakes. 


52  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

The  qualities  mentioned  in  this  score-card  can  be 
quickly  and  easily  determined  by  examining  and  tasting 
the  starter  and  by  making  an  acid  test  of  a  sample.  The 
acid  test  is  conducted  as  with  milk  (see  Chapter  II)  ex- 
cept the  starter  must  be  rinsed  out  of  the  pipette  with 
pure  water.  Some  starter  score-cards  call  for  a  bacterial 
examination  and  counting  of  the  starter  organisms.  This 
takes  a  considerable  period  of  time  and  is  not  entirely 
necessary.  The  physical  properties  and  acid  test  are 
closely  correlated  with  the  presence  of  the  desired  organ- 
isms. 

74.  Use  of  starter.  —  If  all  milk  could  be  clean  and 
sweet  and  the  only  fermentation  from  it  were  the  clean 
acid  type,  a  starter  would  be  useless.     Such  milk  is  hard 
to  obtain ;  therefore,  a  starter  is  used  to  overcome  the  bad 
fermentation.     This  improves  the  flavor,  body  and  tex- 
ture of  the  cheese.     The  common  contaminations  which 
the  starter  will  tend  to  correct  are : 

1.  Gas-producing  bacteria. 

2.  Yeasts. 

3.  Bad  flavors  or  taints. 

The  length  of  time  a  starter  may  be  carried  depends 
on  the  accuracy  and  carefulness  of  the  maker.  This 
calls  for  scrupulous  attention  to  the  temperature,  the 
selection  of  milk  and  keeping  out  contaminations.  The 
maker  must  remember  that  a  starter  is  not  merely  milk, 
but  milk  full  of  a  multitude  of  tiny  plants,  very  sensi- 
tive to  food,  temperature,  clean  surroundings  and  the 
quantity  of  their  own  acid. 

75.  The  amount  of   starter  to   use   depends   on   the 
amount  of  acid  desired  in  the  milk  for  any  particular 
kind  of  cheese.     The  great  abuse  of  starter  is  the  practice 


LACTIC   STARTERS  53 


NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE  AT    CORNELL 
UNIVERSITY 

STARTER   LOT-CARD  Department  of  Dairy  Industry. 

Day  and  Date 

MILK: 


Kind %  fat %  solids  not  fat. 

Flavor 

Amount  of  milk ...  Hours  old._.. 


PASTEURIZATION : 

Method 

Milk  when  received  :  Temperature. 

Acidity % 

Heating :  Turning  on  heat APM. 

Desired  temp,  reached APM. 

Turning  off  heat APM. 

Length  of  time  at  desired  temp 

Beginning  to  cool 

Cooled. APM ;  to 

Acidity:  After  pasteurization 

When  inoculated 


INOCULATION : 

Time Temperature 

Amount Ibs % 

INCUBATION : 

Temperature Time .-. 

MOTHER  STARTER  USED: 

Source %  used 

Times  propagated Acidity 

Amount  used. Appearance 

Flavor 

Comments _ 

STARTER : 

Time  of  examining 

Temperature 


Flavor 50 

Aroma -.20 

Acidity 20 

Body._ 10 


Total ..    100 


SCORE-CARD : 

Clean,  desirable  acid. 

Clean,  agreeable  acid.     No  undesirable  aroma. 

0.6%-0.75%. 

Before  breaking  up :    jelly-like,  close,  absence  of  gas 

holes.     No  free  whey. 
— After  breaking  up  :  smooth,  creamy,  free  from  granules 

or  flakes. 


The  above  is  a  tentative  score-card. 
COMMENTS:  ... 


Work  and  observation  by. 


54  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

of  using;  too  much.  It  is  better  and  safer  to  add  starter 
a  little  at  a  time  and  several  times  than  to  add  too  much 
at  once.  When  starter  is  added  to  milk  for  cheese-making, 
it  should  be  strained  to  remove  any  lumps ;  otherwise  an 
uneven  color  is  likely  to  result. 

76.  Starter  lot-card.  —  For  certain  dairy  operations, 
a  permanent  record  is  desired.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  making  of  starter  and  certain  varieties  of  cheese. 
A  lot-card  not  only  serves  as  a  record-  but  also  points  out 
the  succeeding  steps  of  the  operation.  This  latter  is 
especially  useful  for  beginners  and  students.  Page  53 
shows  a  desirable  lot-card  to  be  used  when  making 
starter.  Each  operation  has  been  referred  to  the  page 
in  the  text  where  it  is  discussed.  This  makes  this 
particular  lot-card  an  index  to  the  whole  process  of  starter- 
making  as  here  treated. 


CHAPTER  V 
CURD-MAKING 

ASIDE  from  the  purely  sour-milk  cheeses,  the  coag- 
ulum  or  curd  resulting  from  rennet  action  is  the 
basis  of  cheese-making.  The  finished  cheese,  whatever 
its  final  condition,  is  primarily  dependent  on  a  particular 
chemical  composition  and  fairly  definite  physical  char- 
acters in  the  freshly  made  curd  mass*  These  characters 
are  determined  by  a  series  of  factors  under  control  of 
the  cheese-maker.  Assuming  the  milk  to  be  normal  in 
character,  success  depends  on  the  use  of  a  proper  combina- 
tion of  these  factors.  The  possible  variations  in  each 
factor  together  with  their  number  makes  an  almost  in- 
finite series  of  such  combinations  possible.  The  essential 
steps  in  the  process  are,  therefore,  presented  as  under- 
lying all  cheese-making.  The  special  adaptations  of 
each  factor  are  considered  in  the  discussion  of  the  vari- 
eties group  by  group. 

These  factors  follow : 

A.  The  coagulation  group : 

1.  Fat-content  of  the  milk. 

2.  The  acidity  of  the  milk. 

3.  The  temperature  of  renneting. 

4.  The  effective  quantity  of  rennet. 

5.  Curdling  period  or  the  time  allowed  for  rennet 
action. 

55 


56  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

B.  The  handling  group : 

6.  Cutting  or  breaking  the  curd. 

7.  Heating  (cooking)  or  not  heating. 

8.  Draining     (including    pressing,    grinding    and 
putting  into  hoops  or  forms). 

77.  The  composition  of  the  milk.  —  The  fat  percentage 
in  the  milk  in  the  cheese- vat  should  be  known  to  the 
cheese-maker  and  be  strictly  under  his  control.     The  fat 
tester  and  the  separator  make  this  clearly  possible.    He  can 
go  further.     Milk  from  particular  herds  whose  quality  is 
a  matter  of  record  from  the  routine  test  of  each  patron's 
milk  may  be  selected  and  brought  together  for  the  manu- 
facturer of  cheese  of  special  quality.      Control  of  casein 
or  lactose,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  nearly  so  practicable. 
The  purchase  of  milk  on  the  fat  test  has  become  so  well 
established  in  most  dairy  territories,  as  to  insure  the 
presence  and  constant  use  of  the  tester.     A  fat  test  of  the 
mixed  product  in  the  cheese- vat  in  connection  with  estab- 
lished tables  thus  insures  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
materials  which  go  into  each  day's  cheese.     For  some 
varieties  of  cheese,  whole  milk  should  always  be  used. 
For  other  Varieties,  the  addition  or  removal   of  fat   is 
regularly  recognized  as  part  of  the  making  process.     The 
presence  of  added  fat  or  the  removal  of  fat  affects  the 
texture  of  the  product  and  the  details  of  the  process  of 
making. 

78.  Cheese  color.  —  An  alkaline  solution  of  annatto  is 
usually  used  as  a  cheese  color.     This  colors  both  casein 
and  fat  in  contrast  to  butter  color  which  is  an  oil  solution 
of  the  dye  and  mixes  only  with  the  fat.     Cheese  color 
is   added    to    the    milk    in    making    some    varieties    of 
cheese,  and  not  for  others.     When  lactic  starter  is  used, 


CURD-MAKING  57 

the  color  should  be  added  after  the  starter  and  just  before 
the  addition  of  the  rennet.  The  amount  is  determined 
by  the  color  desired  in  the  cheese.  The  usual  amount 
varies  from  one  to  four  ounces  to  each  thousand  pounds 
of  milk.  Before  adding,  the  color  should  be  diluted  in 
either  milk  or  water,  preferably  water.  It  should  then 
be  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  milk. 

79.  The  acidity  factor.  —  Milk  as  drawn  shows  a  meas- 
urable acidity  when  titrated  to  phenolphthalein  with 
normal  sodium  hydroxide.  This  figure  varies  with  the 
composition  of  milk.  Casein  itself  gives  a  weakly  acid 
reaction  with  this  indicator.  Calculated  as  lactic  acid, 
this  initial  acidity  varies  within  fairly  wide  limits,  records 
being  found  from  0.12  to  0.21  of  one  per  cent  or  even  more 
widely  apart.  Commonly,  however,  such  titration  shows 
0.14  to  0.17  per  cent.  Some  forms  of  cheese  (Limburger, 
Swiss,  Brie)  are  made  from  absolutely  fresh  milk.  Acidity 
from  bacterial  activity  is  important  as  a  factor  in  the 
making  of  most  types  of  cheese  and  probably  in  the 
ripening  of  all  types. 

Increasing  the  acidity  of  the  milk  hastens  rennet  action 
and  within  limits  produces  increased  firmness  of  the  curd. 
If  carried  too  high,  acidity  causes  a  grainy  or  sandy  curd. 
Normally  fresh  milk  is  sufficiently  acid  in  reaction  when 
tested  to  phenolphthalein  to  permit  rennet  to  act,  but 
the  rate  of  action  increases  rapidly  with  the  develop- 
ment of  acid.  Increase  of  acidity  may  be  accomplished : 
(a)  by  the  addition  of  acid  as  has  been  done  by  Sam- 
mis  l  and  Bruhn  in  pasteurized  milk  for  Cheddar 
cheese;  or  (6)  by  the  development  of  acid  through  the 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  and  A.  T.  Bruhn,  The  manufacture  of  cheese 
of  the  Cheddar  type  from  pasteurized  milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  165,  pages  1-95,  1913. 


58  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

activity  of  lactic  organisms,  which  is  the  usual  way. 
For  renneting,  the  acidity  necessary  for  particular  cheeses 
runs  from  that  of  absolutely  fresh  milk  still  warm  (as 
in  French  Brie,  Limburger,  Swiss,  Gorgonzola)  through 
series  calling  for  increase  of  acidity,  hundredth  by  hun- 
dredth per  cent  calculated  as  lactic  acid.  This  ranges 
from  0.17  to  0.20  per  cent  as  is  variously  used  in  Ameri- 
can factory  Cheddar  to  about  0.25  to  0.28  per  cent  as 
obtained  by  adding  acid  in  Sammis'  method.  This 
method  is  discussed  under  the  heading  "  Cheddar  Cheese 
from  Pasteurized  Milk  "  (p.  229)  since  it  requires  special 
apparatus  and  has  not  thus  far  been  used  with  other  types 
of  cheese.  For  the  development  of  acidity  by  the  action 
of  bacteria,  lactic  starter  is  almost  universally  used. 
This  may  be  added  in  very  small  quantities  and  the 
acidity  secured  by  closely  watching  its  development  or 
by  adding  starter  'in  amount  sufficient  to  obtain  the  re- 
quired acidity  at  once.  In  either  case,  the  cheese-maker 
needs  to  know  the  rate  of  action  of  the  culture  to  in- 
sure the  proper  control  of  the  process.  The  amount  of 
acid  already  present  when  the  rennet  is  added  affects  not 
only  the  texture  of  the  curd  as  first  found,  but  within 
limits  indicates  also  the  rate  at  which  further  acidity  may 
be  expected  to  develop. 

A  series  of  experiments  in  making  Roquefort  were  tabu- 
lated to  show  the  rate  of  acidification  from  various  initial 
points.  In  the  graphs  (Fig.  8)  the  curves  for  acid  de- 
velopment are  parallel  after  the  determination  reaches 
0.30  per  cent.  These  experiments  were  made  at  a  tem- 
perature 80°  to  84°  F.  Milk  at  the  lowest  acidities  tried 
developed  titratable  acid  very  slowly.  A  period  of  several 
hours  was  required  to  produce  sufficient  acid  to  affect  the 
curd  texture.  When  the  acid  reached  0.25  per  cent  by  titra- 


CURD-MAKING 


59 


tion,  the  further  rise  was  rapid  and  all  the  lines  became 
almost  straight  and  parallel  after  the  titration  reached  0.30 


.55 


.50 


.45 


40 


.35 


.30 


.25 


.20 


15 
Hours 


12345 

FIG.  8.  —  The  acidification  of  Roquefort  cheese. 


per  cent.  If  this  rapid  souring  occurred  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  cheese-making  process,  the  texture  of  the 
experimental  cheese  was  not  measurably  affected.  In 
those  cases,  however,  in  which  0.30  per  cent  was  reached 
before  the  cheese  reached  its  final  form  in  the  hoop,  the 


60  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

texture  of  the  ripened  cheese  was  entirely  different  from 
that  desired  for  this  variety  under  experiment.  These 
curves  apply  directly  to  but  one  cheese  process  in  which 
a  particular  combination  of  acidity,  rennet  and  time  is 
used  to  obtain  a  very  delicately  balanced  result.  In  other 
varieties  it  is  equally  important  to  obtain  exactly  the  ad- 
justment of  these  factors  which  will  bring  the  desired  result. 

80.  Acidity  of  milk  when  received.  —  If  proper  care 
has  been  taken,  milk  should  be  delivered  to  the  factory 
fresh,  clean    and  without  the  development  of  acid.     If 
the  milk  has  not  been  handled  properly,  the  early  stages 
of  souring  or  some  other  unfavorable  fermentation  will 
have    developed.     Such    milk    may    develop    too    much 
acid,  or  gas,  or  any  one  of  several  objectionable  flavors 
during  the  making  and  ripening  of  the  cheese.     Some 
cheese-makers  become  very  expert  in  detecting  the  first 
traces  of  objectionable  qualities,  but  most  makers  are 
dependent  on  standardized  tests  to  determine  whether 
milk  shall  be  accepted  or  rejected,  and  when  accepted  to 
determine  the  rate  at  which  it  may  be  expected  to  respond 
during  the  cheese-making  process. 

Various  tests  have  been  devised  to  determine  the 
amount  of  acid  present  in  milk.  There  are  two  tests 
commonly  used  in  cheese-factories.  One  is  known  as 
the  "  acid  test  "  and  the  other  the  "  rennet  test." 

81.  The  acid  test1  is  made   by   titrating   a   known 
amount  of  milk   (Fig.  9)   against  an  alkali  solution  of 

1  Publow,  C.  A.,  An  apparatus  for  measuring  acidity  in  cheese- 
making  and  butter-making,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  7,  pages  17- 
20,  1909. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  and  A.  C.  Evans,  A  comparison  of  the 
acid  test  and  the  rennet  test  for  determining  the  condition  of 
milk  for  the  Cheddar  type  of  cheese,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An. 
Ind.  Circ.  210,  pages  1-6,  1913. 


CURD-MAKING 


61 


known  strength,  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indi- 
cator. The  object  of  the  indicator  is  to  tell  the  con- 
dition of  the  milk,  whether  i't  is  acid,  alkaline  or  neutral. 
The  indicator  does  not  change  in  an  acid  solution  but 
turns  pink  when  the  solution  is  or  becomes  alkaline. 
To  make  the  test,  a  known  quantity  of  the  material  to 
be  tested  is  placed  in  a 
white  cup,  and  to  this 
several  drops  of  indicator 
are  added.  As  an  indi- 
cator, a  1  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  phenolphthalein 
in  95  per  cent  alcohol  is 
commonly  used.  As  an 
alkali  solution,  sodium 
hydroxide  (NaOH)  is 
used  in  the  standardized 
strength  usually  either 
tenth  (N/10)  normal  or 
twentieth  (N/20)  normal. 
This  solution  should  be 
obtained  in  some  one  of 
the  standardized  forms 
commercially  prepared. 
The  alkali  is  added,  drop 

by    drop,  from    a    gradu-  FIG.  9.  —  An  acid  tester. 

ated  burette  until  a  faint 

pink  color  appears.  This  shows  that  the  acid  in  the 
milk  has  been  neutralized  by  the  alkali.  The  amount 
of  alkali  that  has  been  used  can  be  determined  from  the 
burette.  Knowing  the  amount  of  milk  and  alkali  solu- 
tion used,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  amount  of  acid  in 
the  substance  tested.  The  results  are  usually  expressed 


62 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


either  as  percentages  of  lactic  acid  or  preferably  as  cubic 
centimeters  of  normal  alkali  required  to  neutralize  100 
or  1000  c.c.  of  milk.  This  kind  of  test  is  on  the  market 
under  different  names>  such  as  Mann's,  Publow's,  Far- 
rington's  and  Marschall  Js. 

82.  Rennet  tests.  —  Several   rennet   tests   have   been 
devised,  but  the  one  most  widely  used  is  the  Marschall 
(Fig.  10).     This  consists  of  a  1   c.c.  pipette  to  measure 

the  rennet  extract,  a  small  bottle  in 
which  to  dilute  the  extract,  a  special 
cup  to  hold  the  milk  and  a  spatula  to 
mix  the  milk  with  the  rennet  extract. 
This  cup   has  on 
the     inside    from 
top  to  bottom   a 
scale      graduated 
from  0  at  the  top 
to  10  at  the  bot- 
tom.    There  is  a 
hole  in  the  bottom 
to  allow  the  milk 
to  run  out. 

83.  Marschall  rennet  test.  —  To   make   a   Marschall 
rennet  test,  1  c.c.  of  rennet  extract  is  measured,   with 
the  1    c.c.    pipette,    and    placed    in    the    bottle.     Care 
should  be  exercised  to  rinse  out  the  pipette.     The  bottle 
is  then   filled  to  the  mark   with  cold  water.     After  the 
milk  has  been  heated  to  the  setting  temperature,  84°- 
86°  F.,  the  cup  is  filled  with  milk  and  set  on  the  edge  of 
the  vat  so  that  the  milk  running  out  through  the  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cup  will  flow  into  the  vat.     Just 
as  the  surface  of  the  milk  reaches  the  0  mark  on  the  cup, 
the  diluted  rennet  extract  is  added  and  thoroughly  mixed 


i , 

FIG.  10.  —  Marsc 


all  rennet  test. 


CURD-MAKING  63 

with  the  milk,  using  the  small  spatula  to  stir  it. 
The  rennet  and  milk  should  be  mixed  until  it  has  run 
down  at  least  one-half  space  on  the  scale  in  the  cup.  As 
the  rennet  begins  to  coagulate  the  milk,  it  runs  slower 
from  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  until  it  finally 
stops.  When  it  stops,  the  point  on  the  scale  indicated 
by  the  surface  of  the  coagulated  milk  is  noted.  The 
test  is  recorded  by  the  number  of  spaces  the  surface  of 
the  milk  lowers  from  the  time  the  rennet  is  added  until 
it  is  coagulated.  This  test  depends  on  three  factors : 
the  strength  of  the  rennet  extract,  the  temperature  of 
the  milk,  the  acidity  of  the  milk.  The  more  acid,  the 
quicker  the  milk  will  coagulate.  To  measure  any  one 
of  these  factors,  the  other  two  must  be  constant. 
The  variable  factor  is  the  acidity  of  the  milk.  This  test 
will  not  indicate  the  percentage  of  acid  in  the  milk,  but  is 
simply  a  comparative  test  to  be  used  from  day  to  day; 
for  example,  if  the  rennet  test  to-day  shows  three  spaces, 
and  the  operator  makes  that  milk  into  cheese  and  the 
process  seems  to  be  normal,  it  shows  that  for  good  results 
in  this  factory,  milk  should  be  ripened  to  show  three 
spaces  every  day.  If  the  next  day  the  milk  showed  four 
spaces,  it  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  more  until  it  shows 
three  spaces.  If  it  shows  only  two  spaces,  this  indicates 
that  the  milk  has  too  much  acid  development  or  is  over- 
ripe. A  cheese-maker  will  have  to  determine  at  what 
point  to  set  his  milk,  because  the  test  will  vary  from  one 
factory  to  another. 

84.  Comparison  of  acid  and  rennet  test.  —  Each  of 
these  tests  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  The 
advantage  of  the  acid  test  is  that  it  can  be  made  as 
well  of  warm  as  cold  milk.  This  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  determining  whether  the  milk  delivered  by  any 


64  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

patron  is  too  ripe  to  be  received.  The  acidity  of  other 
materials,  such  as  whey  and  starter,  can  be  determined 
as  well  as  that  of  milk.  The  disadvantages  are  that  it 
is  difficult  to  get  the  alkali  solution  of  the  proper  strength 
and  the  solution  is  liable  to  deteriorate  on  standing.  It 
requires  a  careful  exact  operator  to  make  the  test. 

The  advantages  of  the  rennet  test  are  that  it  is  easy  to 
make,  and  it  requires  no  materials  that  are  hard  to  re- 
place. The  disadvantage  is  that  the  milk  must  be 
warmed  to  the  same  temperature  before  a  comparative 
test  can  be  made.  The  size  of  the  outlet  in  cups  varies. 
It  does  not  indicate  the  percentage  of  acid  present  in  the 
milk.  It  is  simply  a  comparative  test.  To  obtain  the 
best  result,  both  tests  should  be  used  in  conjunction. 

85.  Control  of  acid. — The  control  of  acidity  in  curd  and 
cheese  is  dependent  on  the  control  of  the  moisture  or 
water-content.  The  control  of  both  factors  is  very  impor- 
tant in  relation  to  the  quality  1  of  the  cheese.  Often  acio> 
ity  is  spoken  of  when  moisture  is  really  intended,  and 
vice  versa.  The  close  relation  between  the  moisture  and 
acidity  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  milk-sugar  in  solution 
in  the  milk-serum  which  becomes  the  whey  of  cheese- 
making.  Water  or  moisture  in  cheese  consists  of  the 
remnant  of  this  whey  which  is  not  expelled  in  the  making 
process.  During  manufacture  and  the  ripening  process, 
the  milk-sugar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid.  A  cheese  may 
be  sweet  when  first  made  and  after  a  time  become  sour 
because  it  contains  too  much  moisture  in  the  form  of 
whey.  Excess  of  whey  carries  excess  of  milk-sugar 
from  which  fermentation  produces  intense  acidity. 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  The  influence  of  lactic  acid  on  the  quality  of 
cheese  of  the  Cheddar  type,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui. 
123,  pages  1-20,  1910. 


CURD-MAKING  65 

Various  tests  have  been  devised  to  determine  the 
amount  of  acid  developed  at  the  different  stages  of  manu- 
facture. These  tests  are  described  on  page  61.  By  the 
use  of  such  tests,  the  development  of  acid  during  the 
manufacturing  process  can  be  very  accurately  determined. 
There  is  no  quick,  accurate  test  to  determine  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  curd.  The  cheese-maker  has  to  rely 
on  his  own  judgment,  guided  largely  by  the  appearance, 
feeling  and  condition  of  the  curd. 

After  the  rennet  extract  has  been  added,  all  control 
of  the  acid  development  is  lost.  The  cheese-maker  can 
determine  rather  accurately  how  fast  the  acid  will  de- 
velop during  the  ripening  of  the  milk.  This  shows  the 
importance  of  the  proper  ripening.  The  amount  of  acid 
developed  during  the  different  stages  of  the  manufactur- 
ing process  can  be  approximately  followed  with  the  various 
acid  tests.  The  manufacturing  process  should  then  be 
varied  to  obtain  the  proper  relation  between  the  moisture 
and  the  acid  present.  The  only  time  that  the  acidity 
may  be  controlled  is  when  the  milk  is  being  ripened. 
If  too  much  acid  is  developed  before  the  rennet  is  added, 
there  is  apt  to  be  too  much  acid  at  each  stage  of  the  manu- 
facturing process.  This  is  liable  to  hurry  the  cheese- 
making  process  and  to  cause  a  loss,  both  in  quality  and 
quantity  of  cheese,  and  may  cause  a  high  acid  or  sour 
cheese.  If  sufficient  acid  is  not  developed  at  the  time 
the  rennet  is  added  or  if  the  milk  is  not  sufficiently  ripened, 
the  acid  is  liable  not  to  develop  fast  enough  so  that  there 
will  not  be  sufficient  at  each  step  in  the  cheese-making 
process.  Such  a  cheese  is  called  "  sweet."  There  are 
several  conditions  which  will  cause  an  over-development 
of  acid.  Such  a  cheese  is  called  "  acidy  "  or  "  sour." 
These  factors  are  within  the  control  of  the  cheese-maker, 


66  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

hence  should  be  avoided.     A  sour  cheese  shows  lack  of 
skill  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  cheese-maker. 

Conditions  canning  an  acidy  or  sour  cheese: 

Receiving  sour  or  high  acid  milk  at  the  cheese -factory. 

Use  of  too  much  starter. 

Ripening  the  milk  too  much  before  the  rennet  is  added. 

Removing  the  whey  before  the  curd  is  properly  firmed, 
hence  leaving  it  with  too  much  moisture. 

Development  of  too  much  acid  in  the  whey  before  the 
whey  is  removed. 

Improper  relationship  between  the  moisture  and  acidity 
at  the  time  of  removing  the  whey. 

Conditions  causing  deficient  acid: 

Adding  the  rennet  before  sufficient  acid  has  developed. 

Not  using  sufficient  starter. 

Not  developing  sufficient  acid  in  the  whey. 

86.  Acidity  and  rennet  action.  —  The  rennet  extract 
acts  only  in  an  acid  medium.     The  greater  the  acid  de- 
velopment, within  certain  limits,  the  faster  the  action  of 
the  rennet.     If  enough   acid   has  developed  to  cause  a 
coagulation  of  the  casein,  the  rennet  will  not  coagulate  the 
milk.     This  is  one  reason  why  Cheddar  cheese  cannot 
be  made  from  sour  milk. 

87.  Acidity  and  expulsion  of  the   whey.  —  The  con- 
traction of  the  curd  and  expulsion  of  the  whey  are  so 
closely    related    that   they    may  be    treated   under   the 
same    heading.     The   more    acid,  the   faster    the  whey 
separates  from  the  curd,  other  conditions  being  uniform. 
The  relation  of  acidity  and  firmness  of  the  curd  to  temper- 
ature of  the  curd  is  another  important  factor  in  the  suc- 
cessful manufacture  of  cheese.     The  higher  the  acidity, 
the  faster  the  temperature  of  the  curd  can  be  raised  with- 


CURD-MAKING  67 

out  any  harmful  effects.  If  the  temperature  is  raised 
too  fast  in  relation  to  the  acidity,  the  film  surrounding 
each  piece  of  curd  will  become  toughened  so  that  the 
moisture  will  not  be  able  to  escape.  When  this  condition 
exists,  the  curd  will  feel  firm  but  when  the  pieces  are 
broken  open  the  inside  is  found  to  be  very  soft.  This 
results  in  a  large  loss  later  or  may  cause  a  sour  cheese. 
It  usually  causes  an  uneven  texture  and  color  in  the  cheese. 

88.  Acidity  in  relation  to  cheese  flavor.  —  Just  what 
part  the  acid  plays  in  the  development  of  cheese  flavor 
is  not  known.     If  a  certain  amount  of  acid  is  not  present, 
the  characteristic  cheese  flavor  does  not  develop.     If  too 
much  acid  is  developed,  it  gives  the  cheese  a  sour  flavor 
which  is  unpleasant.     If  sufficient  acid  is  not  developed, 
the  other  undesirable  factors  seem  to  be  more  active, 
causing  very  disagreeable  flavor  and  may  cause  the  cheese 
to  putrefy.     A  cheese  with  a  low  acid  usually  develops 
a  very  mild  flavor,  and  if  carried  to  extremes,  as  in  the 
case  of  some  washed  curd  cheese,  the  true  cheese  flavor 
never  develops. 

89.  Acidity  in  relation  to  body  and  texture  of  cheese. 
—  If  a  cheese  is  to  have  a  close,  smooth,  mellow,  silky 
body  and  texture,  a  certain   amount   of   acid   develop- 
ment is  necessary.     If  too  much  acid  is  developed,  the 
body  and    texture  will   be    dry,   harsh,    sandy,    mealy, 
corky.     If  the  acid  is  not  sufficient  the  cheese  may  be 
soft  or  weak  bodied,   and   is  usually  characterized  by 
"  Swiss  curd  holes,"  which   are  spaces  of  various  sizes 
usually  more  or  less  round  and  very  shiny  on  the  inside. 

90.  Acidity  in  relation  to   cheese   color.  —  An  over- 
development of  acidity  affects  the  color  of  a  cheese.     If 
this  development  of  acidity  is  uniform  throughout  the 
cheese,  it  causes  the  color  to  become  pale  or  bleached. 


68  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

If  this  development  is  uneven,  due  to  the  uneven  distri- 
bution of  moisture,  the  color  will  be  bleached  in  spots, 
causing  a  mottled  effect. 

91.  Control  of  moisture.1  —  The  cheese-maker  must 
use  skill  and  judgment  in  regulating  the  amount  of  mois- 
ture in  relation  to  the  firmness  of  the  curd  and  the  acid. 
Since  there  are  no  quick  accurate  tests  to  determine 
the  amount  of  moisture,  this  is  left  entirely  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  operator.  Certain  methods  of  handling 
the  curd  reduce  the  moisture-content,  while  others  in- 
crease it.  The  cheese-maker  must  decide  how  to  handle 
the  curd.  If  the  curd  becomes  too  dry,  methods  should 
be  employed  to  increase  the  moisture,  and  vice  versa. 

Causes  of  excessive  moisture: 

Cutting  the  curd  coarse. 

Cutting  the  curd  after  it  has  become  too  hard. 

Setting  the  milk  at  a  high  temperature. 

Use  of  excessive  amount  of  rennet  extract. 

Low  acid  in  the  curd  at  the  time  of  removing  the  whey. 

Not  stirring  the  curd  with  the  hands  as  the  last  of  the 
whey  is  removed. 

High  piling  of  the  curd  during  the  cheddaring  process. 

Piling  the  curd  too  quickly  after  removing  the  whey. 

Use  of  a  small  amount  of  salt. 

Holding  the  curd  at  too  low  a  temperature  after  the 
whey  is  removed. 

Soaking  the  curd  in  water  previous  to  salting. 

Allowing  the  curd  to  remain  in  the  whey  too  long  so 
that  it  reabsorbs  the  whey. 

Heating  the  curd  too  rapidly. 

1  Fisk,  W.  W.,  A  study  of  some  factors  influencing  the  yield 
and  moisture  content  of  Cheddar  cheese,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
334,  1913. 


CURD-MAKING  69 

Causes  of  insufficient  moisture: 

Cutting  the  curd  too  fine  or  breaking  up  the  pieces 
with  the  rake  into  too  small  pieces. 

Cutting  the  curd  too  soft. 

Stirring  the  curd  too  much  by  hand  as  the  last  of 
the  whey  is  being  removed. 

Developing  high  acid  in  the  curd  at  the  time  of 
removing  the  whey. 

Insufficient  piling  of  the  curd  during  the  cheddaring 
process. 

Using  a  large  amount  of  salt. 

High  temperature  and  low  humidity  in  the  curing 
room. 

92.  Relation  of  moisture  to  manufacture  and  quality. 
—  (1)  Flavor:  If  the  cheese  contains  too  much  moisture, 
it  is  likely  to  develop  a  sour  or  acidy  flavor.  A  cheese 
with  a  normally  high  moisture-content  usually  ripens  or 
develops  a  cheese  flavor  much  faster  than  one  with  a 
lower  moisture^ontent,  other  conditions  being  uniform. 
A  cheese  with  a  high  moisture-content  is  much  more 
liable,  during  the  curing  process,  to  develop  undesirable 
flavors  than  is  one  with  a  lower  moisture-content.  (2) 
Body  and  texture:  A  cheese  containing  too  much  mois- 
ture is  very  soft  and  is  difficult  to  hold  in  shape.  Such 
a  product  breaks  down  very  rapidly  and  is  usually  pasty 
and  sticky  in  texture.  If  too  .little  moisture  is  present, 
the  cheese  is  very  dry  and  hard,  and  cures  or  ripens  very 
slowly  because  of  the  lack  of  moisture  together  with  milk- 
sugar  from  which  acid  may  be  formed.  Dry  cheeses 
are  usually  harsh,  tough  and  rubbery  in  texture.  Such 
cheeses  also  have  poor  rinds.  (3)  Color:  If  the  ideal 
conditions  exist,  the  moisture  will  be  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  cheese.  The  spots  containing  more 


70  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

moisture  will  be  lighter  in  color.  If  a  cheese  con- 
tains so  much  moisture  that  it  becomes  "  acidy,"  the 
effect  is  the  same  as  when  too  much  acid  is  developed, 
that  is,  the  color  becomes  pale  from  the  action  of  the 
acid.  (4)  Finish:  A  cheese  containing  too  much  moisture 
is  usually  soft.  A  good  rind  does  not  form.  Such  a 
cheese  loses  its  shape  very  easily,  especially  in  a  warm 
curing  room.  (5)  Quality:  A  cheese  with  a  high  mois- 
ture-content is  usually  marketable  for  only  a  very  short 
period.  Such  a  product  usually  develops  flavor  very 
quickly  in  comparison  to  a  dry  cheese.  It  must  be 
sold  very  soon  because  if  held  too  long,  the  flavor  be- 
comes so  strong  as  to  be  undesirable,  and  objectionable 
flavors  are  liable  to  develop.  In  some  cases,  such 
cheeses  rot. 

93.  Relation  of  moisture  to  acidity.  —  From  the  pre- 
ceding discussion,  it  is  evident  that  the  relation  between 
the  moisture  and  acidity  is  very  close,  in  fact  so  intimate 
that  in  some  cases  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  one  from 
the  other  when  the  quality  of  the  cheese  is  considered. 
The  proper  relation  of  the  moisture  and  the  acidity  de- 
termines the  quality  of  the  resulting  cheese.  If  too  much 
acid  is  developed  during  the  manufacturing  process,  the 
product  will  be  sour.  If  too  much  moisture  is  retained 
in  the  form  of  whey,  the  cheese  will  be  sour.  The  less 
acid  in  the  curd,  the  more  moisture  in  the  form  of 
whey  may  be  retained  in  the  curd  without  causing  a 
sour  cheese.  The  proper  relationship  between  the  mois- 
ture and  the  acidity  must  be  maintained  or  a  sour  cheese 
will  result. 

The  relation  of  the  moisture  to  the  acidity  also  has  an 
influence  on  the  curing.  If  the  cheese  has  a  low  develop- 
ment of  acidity  and  a  low  moisture-content,  it  will  cure 


CURD-MAKING  71 

very  slowly.  The  increasing  of  either  the  acidity  or 
moisture  usually  increases  the  rate  of  cheese  ripening, 
other  factors  being  the  same. 

The  relation  of  the  acidity  and  the  moisture  is  so  im- 
portant that  it  cannot  be  neglected  without  injuring 
both  the  quality  and  quantity  of  cheese.  This  knowl- 
edge can  be  obtained  only  by  experience. 

94.  Setting  temperature.  —  The  temperature  of  ren- 
neting  makes  very  much  difference  in  the  texture  of 
the  product.  The  enzyme  rennin  is  sensitive  to  very 
slight  changes  in  temperature.  Below  70°  F.,  its  rate  of 
action  is  very  slow.  Beginning  with  approximately 
20  per  cent  of  its  maximum  effectiveness  at  70°  F.  (the 
curdling  point  for  Neufchatel),  it  has  risen  to  65  per  cent 
at  84°  F.,  to  70  per  cent  at  86°  F.,  as  used  in  Cheddar, 
to  about  80  to  85  per  cent  at  90-94°  F.,  as  used  in  Lim- 
burger.  At  105°  F.  it  reaches  its  maximum  effective 
working  rate  to  fall  from  that  efficiency  to  about 
50  per  cent  at  120°  F.  Curdling  at  low  temperature 
lengthens  the  time  required  for  the  same  amount  of  ren- 
net to  curdle  a  given  quantity  of  the  same  milk.  The 
texture  of  curd  produced  at  temperatures  between  70°  F. 
and  84°  F.  is  soft,  jelly-like,  friable  rather  than  rubbery. 
At  86°  F.  it  begins  to  show  toughening  or  rubbery  char- 
acters which  become  very  marked  at  90°  F.  to  94°  F. 
as  used  in  Limburger.  With  the  increased  Vigor  of 
action  as  it  passes  its  maximum  rate  of  action  at 
105°  F.,  the  texture  tends  to  become  loose,  floccose  to 
granular.  Aside  from  the  Neufchatel  group,  the  work- 
ing range  of  temperatures  for  the  renneting  period 
runs  from  about  84°  F.  to  about  94°  F.,  a  range  of 
barely  10°  F.,  or  the  use  of  65  per  cent  to  80  or  pos- 
sibly 85  per  cent  of  the  maximum  efficiency  of  the 


72  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

rennet.  Within  this  range  of  temperature,  the  curd  has 
the  physical  characters  demanded  for  making  most  vari- 
eties of  cheese. 

95.  Strength  of  coagulating  materials.  —  Rennet  and 
pepsin   preparations   vary   in   strength   and   in    keeping 
quality.     With  a  particular  stock,  changes  go  on  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  last  samples  from  a  barrel  of  rennet  are 
much  weaker  than  the  earlier  ones.     Each  sample,  barrel, 
keg  or  bottle  should  be  tested  before  used.     In  continuous 
work  the  results  of  each  day's  work  furnish  the  guide  for 
the  next  day's  use  of  a  particular  lot  of  rennet. 

96.  Amount   of  coagulating  materials  to  use.  —  For 
most   varieties   of   cheese,    sufficient   rennet   extract   or 
pepsin  is  added  to  the  milk  to  give  a  firm  curd  in  twenty- 
five  to  forty  minutes.     Of  the  ordinary  commercial  rennet 
extract,   this   requires   from   two    and   one-half   to   four 
ounces  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  milk.     This  gives  a 
maximum  of  one  part  rennet  for  each  four  to  six  thousand 
parts  of  milk.     The  great  strength  of  the  rennet  extract 
is  thus  clearly  shown. 

97.  Method    of    adding    rennet.  —  Before    rennet    is 
added  to  the  milk,  it  is  diluted  in  about  forty  times  its 
volume  of  cold  water,  which  chills  the  enzyme  and  retards 
its  action  until  it  can  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk. 
If    the   material    is    added    without   such   dilution,  the 
concentrated    extract    produces    instant    coagulation    in 
the  drops  with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  forming  solid 
masses  from  which  the  enzyme  escapes  only  slowly  to 
diffuse  throughout  the  mass.     Uniform  coagulation  thus 
becomes  impossible.     After  the  rennet  extract  has  been 
diluted  with   cold  water,   it  should  be  distributed  the 
entire  length  of  the  vat  in  an  even  stream  from  a  pail. 
It  should  then  be  mixed  with  the  milk  by  stirring  from 


CURD-MAKING  73 

top  to  bottom  for  about  three  to  four  minutes.  For 
this  purpose,  either  a  long-handled  dipper  or  a  wooden 
rake  may  be  used.  A  dipperful  should  be  drawn  from 
the  gate  and  stirred  into  the  vat,  otherwise  the  milk  in 
the  gate  will  fail  to  coagulate  properly  because  the  rennet 
diffuses  too  slowly  to  reach  and  affect  all  the  milk  at  that 
point.  The  milk  should  be  stirred  on  the  top,  preferably 
with  the  bottom  of  a  dipper,  until  signs  of  coagulation 
begin  to  appear.  This  stirring  keeps  the  cream  from 
rising.  There  are  various  ways  or  signs  to  indicate 
when  the  coagulation  has  gone  to  the  stage  at  which 
the  mix  is  about  to  become  thick  :  (1)  The  milk  becomes 
lazy  or  thicker  as  the  finger  is  passed  through  it;  (2) 
bubbles  caused  by  moving  the  finger  remain  on  the  milk 
longer,  usually  until  one  can  count  ten  when  ready  to 
thicken. 

If  the  milk  is  stirred  too  long  or  after  it  begins  to  thicken, 
the  result  is  a  granular  sort  of  curd,  and  there  will  be  an 
abnormally  large  loss  of  fat  in  the  manufacturing  process. 
The  addition  of  the  rennet  and  subsequent  stirring  re- 
quire the  exercise  of  great  care  and  constant  attention  to 
details.  The  cheese-maker  can  do  nothing  else  for  those 
few  minutes.  When  through  stirring,  it  is  a  good  plan 
in  cold  weather  to  cover  the  vat  with  a  cloth  as  this  will 
keep  the  surface  of  the  curd  warm.  In  summer  the  same 
cover  will  keep  out  the  flies. 

Causes  of  a  delayed  coagulation  : 

(1)  Weak  rennet  extract  or  too  small  an  amount. 

(2)  Low  temperatures  due  to  inaccurate  thermometers. 

(3)  Pasteurized  milk. 

(4)  Presence  of  abnormal  bacterial  ferments. 

(5)  Presence  of  preservatives. 


74;  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

(6)  Heavily  watered  milk. 

(7)  Use  of  badly  rusted  1  cans. 

(8)  Milk  containing  small  amounts  of  casein  or  cal- 
cium salts. 

Causes  of  uneven  coagulation: 

(1)  Uneven  temperature  of  the  mix  in  the  vat,  due 
to  lack  of  agitation. 

(2)  Uneven  distribution  of  the  rennet  extract. 

(3)  Adding  rennet  to  vat  too  soon  after  heating,  while 
the  sides  and  bottom  are  still  hot,  causes  curd  to  stick 
to  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vat  making  cutting  difficult. 

(4)  Sloshing  after  the  milk  begins  to  thicken  breaks 
the  curd  and  causes  it  to  whey  off. 

98.  The  curdling  period.  —  The  time  allowed  for 
rennet  action  also  affects  the  texture  of  the  'curd.  The 
enzymes  of  rennet  (rennin  and  pepsin)  do  not  cease  acting 
with  the  thickening  of  the  milk.  In  many  cheeses,  the 
handling  process  begins  as  soon  as  the  curd  has  become 
solid  enough  to  split  cleanly  before  a  finger  thrust  into 
it.  If  let  stand  further,  the  same  curd  mass  will  con- 
tinue to  harden  with  the  progressive  separation  of  whey ; 
this  shows  first  as  drops  ("  sweating  ")  on  its  surface, 
which  then  increase  in  number  and  size  until  they  run 
together  and  form  a  sheet  of  whey.  The  limit  of  such 
action  is  difficult  to  measure.  The  solidifying  process 
ceases  in  a  period  of  hours.  The  further  action  of  the 
enzymes  is  digestive  in  character  and  goes  on  slowly.  It 
requires  a  period  of  weeks  or  even  months  to  accomplish 
measurable  results  at  the  working  temperatures  in  use 
in  the  trade.  Other  ripening  agents  with  more  rapid 

1  Olson,  G.  A.,  Rusty  cans  and  their  effect  upon  milk  for 
cheese-making,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  162,  pages  1-12,  1908. 


CURD-MAKING  75 

action  intervene  to  shape  the  final  result.  It  follows 
that  the  rennet  factor  in  the  ripening  changes  found  at 
the  end  of  the  period  is  almost  negligible  for  most  varieties 
of  cheese,  although  it  appears  to  be  measurable  in  some 
varieties. 

99.  Cutting  or  breaking  l  the  curd.  —  As  soon  as  curd 
is  formed,  separation  of  whey  begins  upon  the  surface 
and  perhaps  around  the  sides  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
accompanied  by  shrinkage  and  hardening  of  the  mass. 
If  the  curd  remains  unbroken,  the  separation  is  extremely 
slow.  In  cheese-making  practice,  such  curd  masses  may 
be  dipped  at  once  into  hoops  as  in  Camembert,  dumped 
in  mass  into  cloths  for  drainage  as  in  Neufchatel  or,  as 
in  the  larger  number  of  cheeses,  cut  or  broken  in  some 
characteristic  manner.  After  the  curd  mass  is  firm,  the 
rate  at  which  subsequent  changes  take  place  depends 
largely  on  the  size  of  the  particles  into  which  the  curd  is 
cut.  The  smaller  the  particles,  the  quicker  the  water  is 
expelled.  Consequently  the  development  of  the  acidity 
and  other  changes  take  place  more  slowly.  For  this 
reason  the  curd  should  be  cut  into  pieces  of  uniform  size. 
If  the  work  is  not  properly  performed,  the  pieces  of  curd  of 
various  sizes  will  be  at  different  stages  of  development. 
The  fine  particles  will  be  firm  and  elastic  while  the  larger 
particles  are  still  soft  and  full  of  whey  and  may  be  de- 
veloping too  much  acid.  The  knives  should  be  inserted 
into  the  curd  obliquely  so  that  they  will  cut  their  way 

1  The  term  "  broken  "  is  included  here  because  the  use  of  some 
curd-breaking  tool  has  always  formed  a  step  in  certain  com- 
mercially successful  processes.  In  every  case  in  which  careful 
experimental  work  has  been  done  the  curd  knife  has  been  suc- 
cessfully substituted  for  the  breaking  tool  and  has  reduced  the 
losses  of  fat  and  casein  and  in  addition  aided  in  obtaining  more 
uniform  cheese. 


76  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

into  the  curd  and  not  break  it.  The  horizontal  knife 
is  used  lengthwise  of  the  vat  and  cuts  the  curd  into  layers 
of  uniform  thickness.  The  perpendicular  knife  then  is 
used  lengthwise  and  crosswise  of  the  vat.  It  first  cuts 
the  curd  into,  strips  and  then  into  cubes.  The  knives 
may  have  wire  blades  or  steel  blades,  some  operators 
preferring  one  and  some  the  other.  Whichever  is  used, 
the  blades  should  be  close  enough  together  to  give  the 
fineness  of  curd  desired. 

After  the  knife  passes  through,  the  cut  faces  quickly 
become  covered  with  a  smooth  coating,  continuous 
over  all  exposed  areas.  This  surface  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  smooth  elastic  coating  or  film.  This 
can  be  seen  by  carefully  breaking  a  piece  in  the 
hand.  It  is  this  film  which  holds  the  fat  within  the 
pieces  of  curd.  If  the  film  is  broken,  some  of  the  fat 
globules  are  lost  because  the  rennet  extract  acts  only 
on  the  casein  and  that  in  turn  holds  the  fat.  All  the 
fat  globules  which  come  in  contact  with  the  knives  as 
they  pass  through  the  curd  will  be  left  between  the 
pieces  of  curd  and  will  pass  off  in  the  whey.  If  care  is 
exercised  in  cutting,  the  loss  of  fat  will  be  confined  to  what 
may  be  called  a  mechanical  loss.  This  is  similar  to  the 
loss  of  the  sawdust  when  sawing  a  board.  This  loss  in 
American  Cheddar  is  about  0.3  per  cent  and  cannot  be 
avoided.  If  it  is  greater  than  this,  it  is  due  to  negligence 
on  the  part  of  the  cheese-maker  or  the  poor  condition  of 
the  milk.  The  cutting  of  the  curd  into  small  pieces  may 
be  considered  a  necessary  evil.  If  the  moisture  could 
be  expelled  from  the  whole  mass  without  disturbing  it, 
this  fat  loss  could  be  prevented.  The  cutting,  breaking 
or  turning  should  be  done  with  the  greatest  care,  that 
the  loss  may  be  as  small  as  possible. 


CURD-MAKING 


77 


100.  Curd  knives.  —  For  cutting  curd,  special  knives 
have  been  devised  (Fig.  11).  They  consist  of  series  of 
parallel  blades  fixed  in  a  frame  to  make  cuts  equidistant. 
The  blades  run  vertically  in  one,  horizontally  in  another. 


Horizontal 


Perpendicular  Horizontal  Perpendicular 

FIG.  11.  —  Blade  and  wire  curd  knives. 


They  are  spaced  according  to  the  demands  of  the  variety 
of  cheese  to  be  made.  Wires  stretched  in  a  frame  take 
the  place  of  blades  in  some  makes  of  curd  knife. 

101.  Heating  or  "  cooking."  —  Curdling  by  rennet 
has  already  been  shown  to  be  markedly  hastened  by 
moderate  heating.  After  the  coagulum  or  curd  is 
formed,  the  making  process  may  be  completed  without 
the  application  of  further  heat,  as  in  Neufchatel, 
Camembert  and  related  forms  (Fig.  12)  and  in  some 
practices  with  Limburger.  In  other  forms  and  especially 
in  the  hard  cheeses  in  which  cutting  of  curd  is  a  prominent 


78 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


part  of  the  process,  the  curd  after  being  cut  is  reheated 
or  "  cooked."  The  cooking  process  hastens  the  removal 
of  the  whey,  thus  shortening  the  time  required  to  reduce 


12545 

FIG.  12.  —  The  heat  relation.     See  pages  77  and  87. 

the  water-content  of  the  mass  to  the  percentage  most 
favorable  for  the  type  of  cheese  desired.  The  process 
also  produces  marked  changes  in  the  physical  character 


CURD-MAKING  79 

of  the  curd  mass.  With  the  rise  in  temperature  the  casein 
becomes  elastic  first,  then  approaches  a  melting  condition 
and  assumes  a  tough,  almost  rubbery  consistency.  The 
final  texture  is  the  result  of  the  combination  of  the 
amount  of  rennet  added,  the  temperature,  the  acidity 
reached  during  the  process,  and  the  final  water-content 
of  the  mass. 

102.  Draining  (including  grinding,  putting  into  hoops 
or  forms  and  pressing) .  —  The  reduction  of  the  water 
in  the  curd  begins  almost  as  soon  as  the  curd  becomes 
firm.     It  is  aided  by  cutting  or  breaking,  by  the  retention 
of  the  heat  applied  before  renneting  and  by  the  second- 
ary heating  or  cooking  used  in  making  certain  groups  of 
cheeses.     In  many  varieties  special  apparatus  is  provided 
in  the  form  of  draining  boards,  draining  racks  or  bags 
to  hasten  the  removal  of  the  whey  as  fast  as  it  separates. 
The    draining   process    continues   until   the    cheese    has 
reached    its    final    form    and    weight.     The    intervening 
process  of  matting  in  the  Cheddar  group  involves  a  com- 
bination of  a  souring  process  with  the  removal  of  whey, 
during  which  the  cubes  of  curd  become  fused  into  semi- 
solid  masses.     If  such  masses  are  formed,  they  must  be 
ground  up  before  the  cheese  can  be  given  its  final  form 
in  the  hoop.     The  draining  process,  therefore,  may  take 
any  one  of  many  forms  varying  from  the  direct  transfer 
of  freshly  formed  curd  into  hoops  in  which  the  entire 
draining  process  is  completed,  to  an  elaborate  series  of 
operations  which  end  in  pressing  curd  drained  to  approxi- 
mately its  final  condition  before  it  is  placed  in  the  hoop. 

103.  Application  to  cheese.  —  From  the  discussion  of 
these  factors,  it  is  evident  that  the   cheeses  produced 
will  differ  widely  with  the  differences  in  manipulation.     If 
one  considers  essential  constituent  substances  separately, 


80  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

the  water-content  of  the  finished  product  is  found 
to  vary  from  30  per  cent  in  Parmesan  to  75  per  cent 
in  cottage  cheese.  The  fat-content  runs  from  a  trace 
in  some  varieties  to  60  per  cent  in  some  cream  cheeses. 
The  texture  of  the  casein,  which  gives  character  to  the 
product,  varies  from  the  tough  or  glue-like  consistency 
of  freshly  made  Swiss  to  the  buttery  condition  of  a  cream 
or  Neufchatel  cheese.  Inside  such  limits  the  tastes  of 
different  peoples  have  led  to  the  manufacture  of  many 
kinds  of  cheese.  Each  of  these  varieties  represents  some 
particular  combination  of  curd-making  factors  and 
ripening  conditions  which  produces  a  cheese  suited  to 
the  taste  of  the  maker  and  consumer  of  that  country  or 
community. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CLASSIFICATION 

THE  literature  of  cheese-making  contains  reference 
to  more  than  500  names  for  varieties  of  cheese.  Many 
of  these  can  be  thrown  readily  into  great  groups  or  fam- 
ilies in  which  there  are  variations  in  unessential  detail 
without  modifying  the  characteristic  texture  and  flavor 
of  the  product.  Many  varietal  names  are  attached  to 
the  product  of  single  factories  or  factory  groups.  Such 
varieties  frequently  differ  only  slightly  in  size  or  shape, 
or  in  stage  of  drainage  or  of  ripening,  from  widely  known 
varieties  or  other  similar  local  forms.  The  descriptions 
recorded  for  such  varieties  commonly  emphasize  minor 
differences  in  manipulation  without  showing  differences 
in  essential  factors.  Vessels  of  particular  size  are  pre- 
scribed to  be  made  of  wood,  earthenware,  or  of  a  special 
metal.  These  details  specify  the  exact  size  and  shape  of 
hoops,  the  use  of  particular  styles  of  cutting  or  breaking 
instruments  and  of  certain  stirring  tools,  the  material 
and  construction  of  mats  and  draining  racks. 

The  descriptions  themselves  are  very  commonly  in- 
adequate. The  variable  factors  in  cheese-making  are 
fat-content  of  the  milk,  acidity,  temperature  of  setting, 
amount  of  rennet,  time  allowed  for  curdling  and  the 
method  of  draining  the  curd.  The  differences  in  practice 
lie,  with  few  exceptions,  in  the  amount  or  intensity  of 
particular  factors,  not  differences  in  kind  or  quality  of 
G  81 


82  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

treatment.  Such  contrasts  are  quantitative,  not  qualita- 
tive. A  great  number  of  combinations  is  possible  by 
small  variations  of  these  factors. 

Varieties  selected  as  types  of  groups  give  marked  con- 
trasts in  character,  but  comparison  of  large  numbers  of 
forms  shows  that  almost  every  gradation  from  group  to 
group  can  actually  be  found.  Within  groups  frequently 
the  same  physical  results  in  texture  and  flavor  can  be 
obtained  by  combinations  or  adjustments  of  factors 
for  the  purpose  of  offsetting  or  counteracting  the  effects 
of  one  change  in  practice  by  the  manipulation  of  other 
factors.  In  ripening,  an  equally  large  range  of  practices 
makes  possible  the  development  of  very  different  qual- 
ities in  mature  cheeses  from  the  same  lot. 

Only  a  few  of  the  large  number  of  described  varieties 
have  obtained  even  national  importance;  fewer  still 
are  known  outside  the  country  of  origin.  In  spite  of  the 
success  of  special  products  when  properly  advertised, 
the  largest  place  in  the  market  is  clearly  accorded  to 
the  standard  forms  which  are  widely  known. 

104.  Basis  of  classification.  —  A  series  of  these  widely 
known  forms  has  been  chosen  as  typical  of  groups  in  a 
system  of  classification  adapted  from  the  French  of  Pouriau. 
No  completely  satisfactory  scheme  of  classifying  all  of  these 
varieties  has  been  devised.  The  grouping  proposed  here  is 
based  on  the  principles  of  curd-making  already  discussed 
together  with  consideration  of  the  ripening  processes  to  be 
discussed  with  each  group.  'The  factors  that  actually 
influence  the  quality  of  the  final  product  are  separated  as 
completely  as  possible  from  non-essential  operative  details. 

The  common  use  of  the  terms  "  soft  "  and  "  hard  " 
cheese  is  based  on  the  single  arbitrary  fact  of  texture. 
The  term  "  semi-hard "  cheese  may  be  conveniently 


CLASSIFICATION  83 

applied  to  a  miscellaneous  group  of  unrelated  families 
which  are  intermediate  in  texture  between  such  soft 
forms  as  Neufchatel  or  Camembert  and  really  hard 
cheeses  like  Cheddar  or  Parmesan.  Although  these 
terms  are  not  made  the  main  basis  of  the  proposed 
grouping,  their  application  to  sections  is  indicated. 
Classification  based  on  the  essential  facts  of  manufac- 
ture is,  however,  really  helpful. 

ANALYTICAL  TABULATION  OP  GROUPS 

Section  I.     Cheeses  with  sour  milk  flavor  only  (Eaten  fresh). 
(Soft  cheeses  45  to  75  %  water)  PAGE 

1.  Curdled  by  souring,   Cottage  cheese  and 

its  allies  in  America,  many  related 
varieties  in  Europe 90 

2.  Curdled    by    souring     and    rennet  —  the 

Neufchatel  group 95 

a.    Skim  —  Skim-milk  Neufchatel      .     .     .     105 
6.    Part  skim  to  whole  milk  —  American  or 

Domestic  Neufchatel 106 

c.  With  fat  added  —  the  cream  cheeses  of 
the  Neufchatel  group  (both  American 
and  European)  —  such  as  Cream,  Ger- 

vais,  Malakoffs,  etc 108 

Section  II.     Cheeses  ripened. 

Subsection  A.     Soft  cheeses  (40  to  50%  water). 

1.  Curdled    by    souring,    heated,    then 

ripened. 
Hand    cheese,    Pennsylvania    pot 

cheese,  Harz,  etc 112 

2.  Curdling    by    souring    and    rennet, 

ripened 
Ripened  (French)  Neufchatel  .     .114 

3.  Curdled  primarily  by  rennet. 

a.    Ripened  by  mold  —  Camembert, 

Brie  and  their  allies     .     .     .117 
6.    Ripened  by  bacteria. 

*  Made  from  soft  or  friable  curd 

—  d'Isigny,  Liederkranz,  etc.     134 
**  Made  from  firm  or  tough  curds 

—  Limburger  and  allies    .     .     139 


84  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

Subsection   B.     Semi-hard    cheeses,    firm,    well-drained 

(38  to  45%  water).    ,  PAQB 

a.    Curd  not  cooked,  ripened  by  molds. 

*  Made     from     friable     curd  — 

Roquefort 150 

**  Made  from  firm  or  tough  curd 
—  Gorgonzola,  Stilton  and 
such  French  forms  as  Gex, 
Septmoncel 158 

6.  Curd  cooked  and  ripened  by  bac- 
teria, —  brick,  Munster,  Port 
du  Salut  (Oka)  .  .  .  .  .  164 

Subsection  C.     Hard  cheeses,  cooked  and  pressed  (30  to 

40%  water). 

a.    Ripened  without  gas  holes. 

1.  Dutch  —  Edam,  Gouda  ...    173 

2.  Danish. 

3.  The  Cheddar  group. 

*  English  —  Cheddar  and  numer- 

ous   related    forms    known 
principally  in  Great  Britain    184 
**  American  —  the  factory  Ched- 
dar   of    United    States    and 
Canada      .......     184 

6.  Ripened  with  the  development  of 
gas  holes. 

*  Holes     large  —  Swiss-Emmen- 

thal,      Gruy^re,      American 

Swiss 276 

**  Holes    small  —  Parmesan    and 

related  varieties       ....     288 

Such  a  classification  brings  together  series  of  products 
in  which  there  is  essential  similarity  in  the  final  output, 
however  great  the  differences  in  manipulation.  It  does 
not  consider  all  varieties  and  specialties.  Some  of  these 
groups  are  important  enough  to  demand  special  mention. 

105.  Processed  cheeses.  —  Cheese  of  any  group  may 
be  run  through  mixing  and  molding  machines  and  re- 
packaged in  very  different  form  from  that  characteristic 
of  the  variety.  In  such  treatment,  the  texture  and 


CLASSIFICATION  85 

appearance  may  be  so  changed  as  to  give  the  effect  of  a 
new  product.  Substances  (such  as  pimiento)  are  added 
to  change  the  flavor.  Or  the  product  may  be  canned 
and  sterilized  with  equally  great  change  of  flavor  and  tex- 
ture. One  thus  finds  Club  made  from  Cheddar;  Pimi- 
ento from  Cream,  Neufchatel  or  Cheddar;  similarly 
olive,  nut  and  other  combinations  are  made.  The 
possible  variations  are  numerous. 

106.  Whey  cheeses.  —  Several  products  bearing  cheese 
names  are  made  from  whey.     These  take  the  forms  of 
the  recovery  of  the  albumin  and  casein  separately  or  in 
a  single  product,   and  the  recovery  of  the  milk-sugar 
either  alone  or  with  the  albumin.     Whey  cheeses  have 
been  especially  developed  by  the  Scandinavian  people, 
although  some  of  them  have  their  origin  in  the  south  of 
Europe.     Certain  of  these  varieties  are  produced  on  a 
limited  scale  in  America. 

There  are  a  number  of  forms  fairly  widely  known  that 
are  difficult  to  place  in  this  scheme  of  groups.  Among 
these  are  Caciocavallo,  Sap  Sago. 

107.  Soft    and    hard    cheeses.  —  Another .  commonly 
used  classification  makes  two  groups:    (1)  soft  cheeses; 
(2)  hard  cheeses.     In  such  a  classification  the  semi-hard 
^roup  presented  here  is  included  with  the  soft  cheeses. 
Some  cheeses  of  this  group  are  soft  in  texture.     This  is 
correlated  with  high  water-content,  high  fat-content  or 
both  together. 

108.  Relation  of  moisture  to  classes.  —  In  this  classi- 
fication the  water-content  reflected  in  the  texture  of  the 
cheese  assumes  first  place.     To  carry  the  analysis  some- 
what further  by  showing  the  correlation  between  water- 
content  and  certain  factors,  a  tabulation  of  well-known 
varieties  of  typical  groups  is  presented  (Table  III).    In 


86 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


this  table  the  series  of  typical  dairy  products  are  first 
arranged  according  to  water-content  of  the  final  product. 
Approximate  limits  of  percentages  of  milk-fat  are  also 
given,  because  milk-fat  frequently  affects  texture  to 
a  degree  almost  equal  to  water.  Column  4  gives  the 
period  within  which  the  more  quickly  perishable  cheeses 
are  usable,  and  the  length  of  the  ripening  for  the  more 
solid  forms.  The  correlation  between  water-content, 
texture  and  the  time  of  keeping  is  clearly  shown  for  most 
varieties. 

TABLE   III 

CORRELATION  WATER-  AND  FAT-CONTENT  WITH  RIPENING 


VARIETY  op 

PER 
CENT 

WATER 

PER 
CENT 
FAT 

PERIOD 
REQUIRED 

RIPENING 
AGENT 

Cheese:  Soft, 

Cottage     .... 

70 

trace 

a  few  days 

Bacteria 

Skim  Neufchatel     . 

70 

trace 

a  few  days 

Bacteria 

Neufchatel     .     .     . 

50-60 

12-28 

a  few  days 

Bacteria 

Camembert    .     .     . 

50 

22-30 

3-5  weeks 

Molds 

Cream  cheese     .     . 

40-50 

35-45 

a  few  days 

Primarily 

bacteria 

Semi-hard  : 

Limburger      .     .     . 

40-45 

24-30 

3-6  months 

Bacteria 

Roquefort      .     .     . 

38-40 

31-34 

3-6  months 

Mold 

Brick    

37-42 

31-35 

3-6  months 

Bacteria 

Hard: 

Cheddar    .... 

30-39 

32-36 

6-12  months 

Bacteria 

Swiss    

31-34 

28-31 

9-18  months 

Bacteria 

and  yeasts 

Parmesan       .     .     . 

30-33 

2-3  years 

Bacteria 

The    soft    cheeses    are    quickly    perishable    products. 
Bacteria  and  molds  find  favorable  conditions  for  growth 


CLASSIFICATION  87 

in  products  with  45  to  75  per  cent  of  water.  If  such 
growth  is  permitted,  enzymic  activities  follow  quickly 
with  resultant  changes  in  appearance,  texture,  odor 
and  taste.  Refrigeration  is  necessary  to  transport  such 
cheeses  to  the  consumer,  if  properly  ripened.  Trade  in 
these  forms  may  continue  throughout  the  year  in  cool 
climates  and  in  places  where  adequate  refrigeration  is 
available.  Practically,  however,  outside  the  large  cities 
this  trade  in  America  is  at  present  limited  to  the  cold 
months;  inside  the  large  cities  much  reduced  quantities 
of  these  cheeses  continue  to  be  handled  through  the  year. 

In  the  stricter  sense,  the  soft  group  of  cheeses  falls 
naturally  into  two  series:  (1)  the  varieties  eaten  fresh; 
and  (2)  the  ripened  soft  cheeses.  Those  eaten  fresh  have 
a  making  process  which  commonly  involves  the  develop- 
ment of  a  lactic  acid  flavor  by  souring,  but  no  ripening 
is  contemplated  after  the  product  leaves  the  maker's 
hands.  In  the  ripened  series,  after  the  making  process 
is  completed,  the  essential  flavors  and  textures  are  de- 
veloped by  the  activity  of  micro-organisms  during  ripen- 
ing periods  varying  in  length  but  fairly  well-defined  for 
each  variety. 

In  contrast  to  the  soft  cheeses,  the  hard  kinds  are 
low  in  water-content,  ripen  more  slowly  and  may  be 
kept  through  much  longer  periods.  They  retain  their 
form  through  a  wider  range  of  climatic  conditions.  They 
develop  flavor  slowly  and  correspondingly  deteriorate 
much  more  slowly.  Such  cheeses  are  in  marketable  con- 
dition over  longer  periods.  In  their  manufacture  the 
cooking  of  the  curd  takes  a  prominent  place. 

109.  Relation  of  heat  to  classes.  —  The  close  relation 
between  the  heat  applied  and  the  product  sought  forms 
the  basis  of  a  striking  series  of  graphs  (Fig.  12,  page  78). 


88  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

These  show  the  changes  hour  by  hour  in  the  heat  relation 
during  the  making  process  of  a  series  of  widely  known 
forms,  each  of  which  is  chosen  as  typical.  In  some  of 
these  forms,  heat  is  applied  but  once  to  bring  the  milk 
to  the  renneting  temperature  typical  for  the  variety. 
Subsequent  manipulations  are  accompanied  by  a  steady 
fall  in  temperature.  In  other  forms,  the  curd  when 
solid  is  specially  heated  or  "  cooked  "  to  bring  about 
the  changes  characteristic  of  the  variety.  These  con- 
trasts are  clearly  brought  out  by  the  graphs  which  rep- 
resent practices  well  recognized  for  the  varieties.  The 
detailed  process  for  these  groups  is  considered  in  suc- 
ceeding chapters. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CHEESES  WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR 

THE  cheeses  with  flavor  of  sour  milk  are  probably  more 
widely  used  than  any  other  group.  Historically  and  to 
a  very  large  degree  at  present,  they  are  farm  cheeses.1 
No  estimate  of  volume  of  such  production  in  the  house- 
hold has  ever  been  made.  The  utilization  of  surplus 
milk  in  this  way  is  of  ancient  origin. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  factory  system  of  han- 
dling milk,  the  manufacture  of  such  cheese  in  the  house- 
hold was  largely  dropped.  The  rise  in  price  of  all  food 
substances  and  increasing  appreciation  of  the  food  value 
of  milk  products  have  made  the  recovery  of  all  surplus 
milk  in  some  form  very  necessary.  The  manufacture 
of  cottage,  Neufchatel  and  cream  cheese  is  one  of  the 
best  forms  of  such  recovery  which  may  be  adapted  to 
utilize  any  grade  from  skimmed-milk  to  cream.  Large 
quantities  of  skimmed-milk  have  frequently  been  lost 
from  the  total  of  human  food  by  the  manufacture  of 
casein  for  industrial  uses,  and  by  use  as  stock  feed. 

110.  Skim  series.  —  The  kinds  of  cheeses  eaten  fresh 
have  in  common  a  very  soft  texture  and  the  flavor  of 

1  Frandsen,  J.  H.,  and  T.  Thorsen,  Farm  cheese-making,  Univ. 
Neb.  Ext.  Serv.  Bui.  47,  pages  1-16,  1917. 

Michels,  J.,  Improved  methods  for  making  cottage  and 
Neufchatel  cheese,  N.  C.  .Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  210,  pages  29-38. 

Fisk,  W.  W.,  Methods  of  making  some  of  the  soft  cheeses, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  30,  pages  41-62,  1915. 

89 


90  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

sour  milk,  principally  lactic  acid.  The  group  falls  natu- 
rally into  two  sections :  (1)  the  cheeses  made  from  milk 
curdled  by  souring ;  (2)  those  for  which  the  milk  is  curdled 
by  souring  and  rennet.  In  the  latter  group  both  agencies 
are  necessary  to  the  resulting  product.  The  time  required 
to  curdle  by  souring  alone  is  longer  than  when  rennet 
is  used;  this  period  is  usually  longer  than  necessary  for 
the  cream  to  rise  by  gravity;  hence  the  cream  is  either 
skimmed  off  or  removed  with  the  separator  beforehand. 
The  curd,  therefore,  is  essentially  a  skimmed-milk  curd. 
Casein  curdled  in  this  way  tends  to  become  granular 
or  "  rough,"  to  feel  "  sandy  "  when  rubbed  between  the 
fingers.  Heating  is  commonly  necessary  to  lower  the 
water-content  of  the  mass  even  to  75  per  cent.  Such 
curd  tends  to  become  hard  or  rubbery  when  heat  is  ap- 
plied. In  this  group,  the  best  known  form  is  variously 
called  "  cottage  "  cheese,  "  clabber  "  cheese,  schmier- 
kase. 

111.  Cottage    cheese    is    made    from    skimmed-milk, 
soured  by  lactic  bacteria  until  a  curd  is  formed.     This 
is  done  preferably  at  about  20°  C.  (70°  F.),  because  at 
this  temperature  the  purely  lactic  type  of  organism  has 
been  found  to  outgrow  competing  forms  which  may  be 
present.     Starter  containing  the  desired  culture,  if  prop- 
erly used,  saves  much  time  in  the  curdling  period.      Such 
curdling  requires  at  least  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours, 
frequently  much  longer  unless  abundant  starter  is  intro- 
duced. 

112.  Household    practice.  —  The    details    of    cottage 
cheese  making  in  the  home  differ  widely  in  separate  sec- 
tions and  even  in  different  families  in  the  same    part 
of  the  country.     The  essentials  of  the  practice,  common 
to  all,  include :    (1)  curdling  the  whole  milk  by  natural 


CHEESES  WITH  SOUR- MILK  FLAVOR     91 

souring;  (2)  removing  the  sour  cream  which  is  usually 
used  for  butter-making ;  (3)  scalding  the  curdled  skimmed- 
milk  either  by  slowly  heating  it  in  the  original  vessel 
surrounded  by  hot  water  or  by  actually  pouring  an 
approximately  equal  volume  of  boiling  water  into  the 
curdled  mass;  (4)  bagging  and  draining  the  mass  until 
it  reaches  the  desired  texture;  (5)  the  kneading  of  the 
mass  with  the  addition  of  salt  and  cream.  The  result- 
ing product  varies  greatly  in  quality.  Unfavorable  fer- 
mentations frequently  affect  the  flavor.1  The  "  scalding  " 
varies  from  a  temperature  of  90°  F.  almost  to  boiling 
with  a  resultant  texture  varying  from  almost  the  smooth 
buttery  consistency  of  Neufchatel  to  hard  coarse  granular 
lumps.  The  best  practice,  using  clean  well-cared-for 
milk  and  draining  at  low  temperature,  produces  a  very 
attractive  cheese.  Such  cheese  is  heated  to  90°  to  100°  F. 
on  the  maker's  judgment,  drained  carefully,  kneaded  well 
by  hand  or  by  machine  with  the  addition  of  cream  to  give 
it  an  attractive  texture  and  flavor. 

113.  Factory  practice.  —  When  cottage  cheese  is  made 
in  the  factory,2  separated  milk  is  taken;  it  should  be 
pasteurized  and  then  soured  by  a  lactic  starter.  The 
souring  can  be  accelerated  by  the  use  of  a  starter,  which 
may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  0.5  to  5  per  cent  of  the 
skimmed-milk  used,  depending  on  the  amount  of  starter 
that  can  be  made.  Generally,  the  more  starter  added, 
the  more  rapid  will  be  the  coagulation  and  the  better 
will  be  the  flavor  of  the  cheese.  As  soon  as  the  milk 
has  thickened,  the  curd  is  ready  to  be  broken  up  and 

1  Tolstrup,  R.  M.,  Cheese  that  farmers  should  make,  Iowa 
Agr.  15  (1914),  2,  pages  89-90. 

2  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.,  Chemical  changes  in  the 
souring  of  milk  and  their  relations  to  cottage  cheese,  N.  Y. 
(Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  245,  pages  1-36,  1904. 


92  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

separated  from  the  whey.  This  separation  is  hastened 
by  the  application  of  heat.  Usually  the  temperature 
of  the  curd  is  raised  slightly  before  it  is  broken  up ;  since 
this  makes  the  curd  firmer,  there  will  be  a  smaller  loss  of 
curd  particles  in  the  whey.  The  curd  may  be  cut  with 
coarse  Cheddar  cheese  knives  or  broken  with  a  rake. 
The  temperature  of  the  curd  should  be  raised  very  slowly, 
at  least  thirty  minutes  being  taken  to  reach  the  desired 
final  temperature.  No  set  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the 
exact  temperature  to  which  the  curd  should  be  heated. 
The  temperature  should  be  raised  until  a  point  is  reached 
at  which  the  curd,  when  pressed  between  the  thumb  and 
the  fingers,  will  stick  together  and  not  go  back  to  the 
milky  state.  This  temperature  is  usually  from  94°  to 
100°  F.,  but  the  cheese-maker  must  use  his  own  judgment 
in  this  respect.  If  the  curd  is  heated  too  much,  it  will 
be  hard  and  dry ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not  heated 
sufficiently,  the  whey  will  not  separate  from  the  curd  and 
the  latter  will  be  very  soft  and  mushy. 

When  the  curd  has  been  heated  sufficiently  and  has 
become  firmed  in  the  whey,  it  should  be  removed  from 
the  whey.  This  may  be  done  either  by  letting  down  one 
end  of  the  vat  and  piling  the  curd  in  the  upper  end,  or 
by  dipping  out  the  curd  into  a  cloth  bag  and  allowing  the 
whey  to  drain,  which  it  does  very  rapidly.  No  treatment 
can  prevent  the  "  roughness  "  of  an  acid  curd  (this  is 
a  fine  gritty  feeling  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers), 
but  the  coarse  hard  grainy  texture  and  lumps  charac- 
teristic of  the  highly  heated  curd  do  not  develop. 
Experimental  workers  have  agreed  that  to  have  the 
proper  texture,  such  curd  should  contain  when  finished 
about  70  to  75  per  cent  of  water.  It  should  have  a  mild 
but  clean  acid  flavor.  Such  a  cheese  will  carry  about  1 


CHEESES    WITH   SOUR-MILK   FLAVOR          93 

to  2  per  cent  of  salt,  without  an  objectionably  salty 
taste.  This  cheese  is  commonly  sold  by  measure,  some- 
times in  molds  or  cartons.  The  manufacture  of  all  forms 
of  cottage  cheese  has  been  largely  superseded  by  the 
making  of  skimmed-milk  Neufchatel  or  Baker's  cheese. 

The  yield  from  one  hundred  pounds  of  skimmed-milk 
runs  up  to  fourteen  to  nineteen  pounds  of  cheese,  when 
made  very  wet  or  from  pasteurized  milk.  The  yield 
varies  with  the  moisture-content  of  the  cheese,  being 
greater  for  cheese  with  a  high  content.  Too  much 
moisture  or  whey  should  not  be  left  in  the  curd,  how- 
ever, as  this  will  render  it  too  soft  to  be  handled. 

Cottage  cheese  made  by  either  the  home  or  factory 
practice  is  a  quickly  perishable  article.  Although  the 
acid  restrains  bacteria  at  first,  the  high  percentage  of 
water  favors  the  growth  of  molds  which  tolerate  acidity, 
especially  Oidium  (Oospora)  lactis  and  the  Mucors  •  or 
black  molds.  These  molds  destroy  acidity  rapidly  and 
thus  permit  the  bacteria  of  decay  to  develop  and  to 
produce  objectionable  taste  and  odors.  Spoilage  in 
these  products  is  accelerated  by  the  kneading  process 
which  distributes  air  throughout  the  mass  and  with  it 
all  forms  of  microbial  contamination. 

114.  Buttermilk  cheese.  —  A  cheese  closely  resembling 
cottage  may  be  made  from  buttermilk.  If  the  buttermilk 
came  from  cream  which  was  churned  before  it  became 
sour,  the  process  is  the  same  as  that  already  described 
for  the  making  of  cottage  cheese  from  skimmed-milk.  If 
the  buttermilk  came  from  sour  cream  the  process  of 
manufacture  is  much  more  difficult.  The  casein  of  sour 
cream  has  already  been  coagulated  with  acid  and  broken 
during  churning  into  very  minute  rather  hard  particles. 
These  fine  particles  are  difficult  to  recover.  They  are  so 


94  THE   BOOK>  OF   CHEESE 

fine  that  they  pass  through  the  draining  cloth  or  at 
other  times  clog  it  and  prevent  drainage.  They  do  not 
stick  together  at  ordinary  temperatures.  They  cannot 
be  collected  by  the  use  of  acid  because  they  have  already 
been  coagulated  with  acid.  After  casein  has  been 
coagulated  with  acid,  rennet  extract  will  not  recoagu- 
late  the  particles.  The  buttermilk  may  be  mixed  with 
sweet  skimmed-milk ;  then  as  the  latter  coagulates,  it  locks 
in  the  casein  of  the  buttermilk  so  that  it  can  be  collected. 
If  buttermilk  from  soured  cream  is  used  alone,  the  casein 
may  be  collected1  by  neutralizing  and  heating  to  130 
to  150°  F.,  and  holding  until  the  casein  gathers  together. 
The  whey  can  then  be  drawn  off.  Often  there  is  further 
difficulty  in  getting  the  casein  to  collect,  since  the  pieces 
remain  so  small  that  they  go  through  the  strainer. 

Cheese  made  entirely  from  buttermilk  is  sandy  in 
texture  and  often  not  palatable.  If  the  buttermilk  with 
good  flavor  is  mixed  with  skimmed-milk,  it  makes  a  good 
cheese  closely  resembling  cottage. 

115.  Neufchatel  group.2  —  The  Neufchatel  process 
originated  in  northern  France  where  a  number  of  varieties 
are  included  under  this  as  a  group  name.  Among  these 
are  Bondon,  Malakoff,  Petit  Suisse,  Petit  Carre.  The 
name  designates  a  general  process  of  curd-making  which 
is  applied  to  skimmed-milk,  whole  milk  or  cream.  Some  of 
the  resultant  cheeses  are  ripened ;  some  are  eaten  fresh. 
The  Neufchatel  cheeses  of  France  gained  such  wide  recog- 
nition for  quality  that  the  process  of  making  has  become 
widely  known.  In  America  the  manipulations  of  the 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  Three  creamery  methods  for  making  butter- 
milk cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  239,  1914. 

2Matheson,  K.  J.,  C.  Thorn  and  J.  N.  Currie,  Cheeses  of 
the  Neufchatel  group,  Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  78,  pages 
313-329,  1914. 


CHEESES    WITH   SOUR-MILK   FLAVOR  95 

French  process  were  early  dropped.  The  essentials  were 
made  the  basis  of  a  successful  factory  practice  which 
has  been  widely  adopted.  TJie  American  factory  prac- 
tice is  discussed  here  and  the  French  process  briefly 
considered  under  the  heading  Ripened  Neufchatel.  (See 
Chapter  VIII.) 

116.  Domestic   or  American  Neufchatel  cheeses  are 
soft,  have  clean  sour  milk  (lactic   acid)  flavor   and  are 
quickly  perishable.     In  all  but  the  coldest  weather,  they 
require   refrigeration   to   reduce   deterioration   and   loss. 
They  range  in  fat-content  from  traces  only  to  50  per 
cent  and  more ;   in  water  from  40  to  75  per  cent,  accord- 
ing to  the  milk  used.     In  texture  Neufchatel  is  smooth, 
free  from  gas,  free  from  lumps  or  roughness  when  rubbed 
between  the  fingers.     This  flavor  and  texture  is  obtained 
by  a  combination  of  slow  rennet  curdling  with  develop- 
ing acidity.     No  further  ripening  is  permitted. 

117.  The     factory.  —  Neufchatel     factories     require 
the  standard   dairy  equipment  for  receiving,  weighing, 
testing,  separating,  heating,  pasteurizing  and  cooling  the 
milk.     Since  many  factories   produce   several  products, 
the  same  general  dairy  equipment  may  serve  for  all.     In 
addition  to  such  equipment,  Neufchatel  requires  a  cur- 
dling apparatus  which  can  be  held  at  70-75°  F.     This 
may  be  a  room  properly  controlled,  or  a  tank  where  tem- 
perature control  is  obtained  by  water  and  steam.     For 
draining,  a  room  kept  at  60°  F.  gives  nearly  the  ideal 
temperature,  which  must  be  supplemented  by  relative 
humidity  high  enough  to  prevent  the  exposed  surface  of 
curd  from  drying  during  periods  of  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours.     This   requires   almost   a   saturated   atmosphere. 
A  room  with  special  molding  machinery  is  required  and 
tables  for  wrapping,  labeling   and  boxing   the  product 


96 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


CHEESES    WITH  SOUR-MILK   FLAVOR          97 

are  necessary.  Box-making  machinery  is  usually  an 
economic  necessity  for  work  on  a  large  scale.  Adequate 
refrigeration  is  requisite  both  to  chill  the  curd  before 
molding  and  to  preserve  it  after  packaging. 

118.  Cans.  —  For  curdling,  the  "  shot-gun  "  can,  about 
nine  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty  inches  deep,  is  gen- 
erally used.     This  holds  thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  milk. 
Increased  capacity  is  dependent,  therefore,  on  the  number 
of  units  installed,  not  on  changes  in  the  units  themselves. 

119.  Draining  racks.  —  A   draining   rack   is   required 
for  each  can  of  curd.     These  racks  also  are  standardized 
units  whose  num- 
ber    limits     the 

capacity  of  the 
factory.  The  de- 
sign of  these 
racks  (Figs.  13, 
14)  and  their  ar- 
rangement in  the 
draining  room  are 
taken  from  Bul- 
letin 78  of  the 
Storrs  Agricul-  „ 

.  FIG.  14.  —  Detail  of  a  Neufchatel  draining  rack. 

tural  Experiment 

Station :  "  The  racks  are  rectangular,  thirteen  inches 
wide,  thirty-six  inches  long  and  ten  inches  deep.  The 
corner  posts  extend  one  and  one-half  inches  beyond  the 
strips  at  top  and  bottom  with  the  tops  rounded  as  a  rule 
as  seen  in  the  photograph.  The  bottom  slats  fit  loosely 
into  notches,  hence  are  removable  for  washing  purposes. 
The  materials  required  are  four  corner  posts  one  and 
one-half  by  one  and  one-half  inches;  nine  strips  one  by 
three-eighths  by  thirty-six  inches ;  six  strips  one  by  three- 


98 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


eighths  by  thirteen  inches,  two  strips  one  by  three-eighths 
by  twelve  and  a  quarter  inches,  notched  to  receive  the 
bottom  slats;  all  made  from  pine." 

120.  Cloths.  —  For   each   draining  rack,   a   cloth   one 
yard  wide  and  one  and  one-half  yards  long  is  required. 
Cotton  sheeting  is  satisfactory  for  the  purpose ;     "  even- 
count,  round-thread,  unmercerized  voile "   is  suggested 
by  Dahlberg.1 

121.  Molding  machinery.  —  For  work  on  a  large  scale, 
special    power    machines  2    are    regularly    used.     These 

consist  of  a  hopper 
and  worm  delivering 
a  standard  size  stream 
of  curd  through  a 
proper  size  and  shape 
of  delivery  tube.  This 
curd  stream  is  cut  by 
an  automatic  device 
into  the  proper  lengths 
to  form  the  standard 
cheese.  In  this  way  a 
uniform  size  of  cheeses 
is  obtained.  Experi- 
mental work  with  hand 
apparatus  showed  that  a  worm  six  inches  in  diameter  is 
required  to  deliver  curd  in  a  smooth  column  one  and 
one-half  inches  square.  If  the  pressure  is  not  sufficient, 

1  Dahlberg,   A.   0.,   The  manufacture  of  cottage  cheese  in 
creameries  and  milk  plants,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  576,  pages  1-16, 
1917. 

2  Since  the  number  of  factories  has  continued  small,  the  manu- 
facture of  this  type  of  machine  has  remained  a  monopoly  in 
which  each  machine  is  made  to  order  by  the  Van  Eyck  Machine 
Co.  of  Holland,  Mich. 


FIG.  15.  —  Neuf chattel  and  cream  cheese 
molds. 


CHEESES  WITH  SOUR- MILK  FLAVOR     99 

the  column  will  frill  at  the  edges.     Such  irregular  surfaces 
cannot  be  wrapped  smoothly  enough  to  delay  spoilage. 

On  a  small  scale,  a  fair  grade  of  product  can  be  molded 
through  a  tin  tube  (see  Fig.  15)  one  and  three-quarters 
inches  in  diameter  and  ten  inches  long  in  which  the  curd 
is  compressed  by  a  close  fitting  plunger  operated  by  hand. 

122.  Milk  for  Neufchatel  should  be  clean,  free  from 
gas  and  taint.     Such  milk  should  preferably  be  not  more 
than  twelve  hours  old  when  received  and  in  no  case  show 
higher  than  0.20  per  cent  lactic  acid  by  titration.     Milk 
testing  4  per  cent  fat  or  higher  will  produce  a  higher  qual- 
ity of  product  than  lower  grade  milk,  although  every 
grade  from  skimmed-milk  to  cream  is  used  in  producing 
some  form  of  Neufchatel.     This  milk  should  be  pasteur- 
ized unless  shown  to  be  free  from  tuberculosis  by  proper 
test  of  the  cattle.     Evidence  1  that  the  organism  of  tuber- 
culosis will  withstand  the  regular  handling  process  for 
cheeses  of  this  group,  and  retain  its  ability  to  cause  dis- 
ease in  experimental  animals  makes  the  introduction  of 
pasteurization  necessary  in  this  whole  group  of  cheeses. 
Any  effective  pasteurization  may  be  used,  but  tempera- 
tures   of    140-145°  F.    for    thirty    minutes    have    been 
effective  with  less  changes  in  the  milk  than  higher  tem- 
peratures for  shorter  periods.     The  milk  should  be  cooled 
to  curdling  temperature  and  the  starter  and  rennet  added 
and  stirred  into  the  milk  in  bulk.     The  milk  may  then  be 
quickly  distributed  into  the  curdling  cans  with  a  hose 
or  from  the  gate  valve  of  the  mixing  vat. 

123.  Starter.  — To  insure  the  development  of  a  clean 
acid  flavor,  a  small  amount  of  lactic  starter  should  be 

1  Presented  by  Dr.  E.  C.  Schroeder  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
to  the  International  Association  of  Dairy  and  Milk  Inspectors, 
at  Washington,  Oct.  17,  1917,  published  Jour.  Am.  Vet.  Med. 
Assoc'n  52,  N.  S.  5,  no.  6,  pages  674-685,  1918. 


100  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

used.  The  quantity  to  use  depends  on  the  quality  of  the 
milk.  With  skimmed-milk,  a  pint  for  each  thirty-pound 
can  is  recommended  by  Matheson  and  Cammack  1  and 
by  Dahlberg.  (See  page  98.)  For  whole-milk  Neufchatel, 
2  c.c.  to  a  thirty-pound  can  of  milk  commonly  gives  good 
results.  On  this  basis  2  ounces  of  starter  would  be  suf- 
ficient if  properly  stirred  into  about  1000  pounds  of  milk. 
Too  slow  development  of  acid  is  preferable  to  over-rapid 
souring. 

124.  Renneting    or    setting.  —  The    milk    should    be 
cooled  after  pasteurizing  to  between  70°  and  75°  F.     Ren- 
net is  added  at  the  rate  of  f  c.c.  to  a  thirty-pound  can 
(roughly  J  ounce  to  1000  pounds).     This  will  thicken 
the  milk  sufficiently  in  the  first  few  hours  to  reduce  the 
separation  of  the  cream.     For  completion  of  the  curdling 
and  souring  process,  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  are  required. 
Usually  the  cans  stand  overnight  at  uniform  temperature. 
When  ready  to  drain,  the  curd  should  be  firm,  smooth 
and  mildly  acid.     Whey  separating  from  it  should  not 
titrate  above  0.35  per  cent  titrated  as  lactic  acid. 

125.  Draining.  —  A  cloth  is  spread  over  a  draining 
rack  and  the  contents  of  one  "  shot-gun  "  can  poured 
upon  the  cloth  with  as  little  breaking  as  possible.     In 
this  way  a  large  surface  is  exposed.     The  room  must  be 
kept  wet  to  prevent  the  surface  of  the  curd  drying  to 
form  crusts  which  stop  draining.     A  temperature  of  60° 
F.  is  favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  proper  texture  and 
humidity    without    the    development    of    objectionable 
organisms,  especially  Oidium  lactis,  which  tends  to  cover 
every  exposed  surface  in  such  rooms.     Draining  may  be 

1  Matheson,  K.  J.,  and  F.  R.  Cammack,  How  to  make  cottage 
cheese  on  the  farm,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  850,  pages 
1-15,  1917. 


CHEESES   WITH  8OV&MIJ&R 

hastened  by  turning  the  curd  or  changing  the  position  of 
the  cloth.  In  factory  practice,  the  large  draining  surface 
reduces  the  necessity  of  handling  the  curd  and  reduces 
the  loss  of  fat.  About  twelve  hours  are  required  upon 
the  draining  racks. 

On  a  small  scale  with  a  few  cans  of  curd  in  the  home, 
any  form  of  draining  rack  may  be  used,  such  as  a  potato 
or  berry  crate,  or  the  corners  of  the  cloth  may  be  brought 
together,  tied  and  the  mass  hung  up.  The  curd  must 
be  turned  by  pulling  up  the  corners  of  the  cloth  to  prevent 
drying  at  the  edges  and  stoppage  of  draining  from  the 
center  of  the  mass.  Such  treatment  produces  much  more 
rapid  drainage  than  the  factory  practice  and  involves 
proportionately  more  labor  and  larger  fat  losses. 

126.  Cooling    Neufchatel.  —  When    whey    ceases    to 
separate  readily,  the  corners  of  the  cloth  are  loosed  from 
the  rack,  folded  diagonally  or  tied,  and  the  curd  cooled 
on  ice  or  in  refrigerators.     When  thoroughly  chilled  the 
bags  of  curd  are  put  into  presses,  where  light  but  in- 
creasing  pressure   forces  more  whey  out  of   the   mass. 
Tests  at  this  time  should  show  about  0.60  per  cent  acid 
in  the  whey.     With  low-fat  curd  every  step  of  the  process 
may  be  hastened,  but  with  high-fat  care  must  be  exer- 
cised to  prevent  loss  of  fat  during  pressing  especially. 
Any  pressing  device  permitting  continuous  pressure  with 
ease  of  manipulation  may  be  used. 

127.  Pressing.  —  The  ideals  of  the  maker  must  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  pressing.     A  high  yield  is  obtained 
by  leaving  whey  in  the  curd.     If  immediate  consumption 
is  certain,  such  cheese  may  be  satisfactory,  but  if  the 
cheese  is  to  be  held  some  days  the  extra  whey  carrying 
more    milk-sugar    favors    increased    acid    development. 
This  produces  very  sour  cheese  with  much  more  danger 


102 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


of  other  fermentations  which  cause  objectionable  flavor. 
Too  much  water  favors  more  active  bacterial  growth  as 
well  as  produces  cheese  too  soft  for  the  necessary  handling 
in  the  market. 

In  the  press,  several  bags  of  curd  may  be  piled  together. 
The  press  should  be  released  and  the  bags  turned  from 
time  to  time  to  insure  even  drainage.  Several  hours  of 
pressing  are  usually  required.  The  danger  of  insufficient 
pressing  is  due  to  the  difference  of  texture  between  the 
worked  and  unworked  curd.  Before  working,  curd  carry- 
ing 10  per  cent  excess  moisture  resembles  the  finished 
product  sufficiently  to  deceive  any  but  the  experienced 
maker.  But  if  this  curd  is  transferred  to  the  worker  and 
to  the  molding  machine,  it  is  found  to  become  soft, 

pasty  and  sticky,  to 
lack  "body,"  hence  to 
make  very  unsatis- 
factory packages  and 
to  spoil  very  quickly. 
The  masses  of  curd 
should  come  out  of 
the  press  as  dry  and 
hard  flat  cakes. 

128.  Working  and 
salting  Neufchatel. — 
The  cakes  of  curd  go 
from  the  press  to  the 
working  table.  Here 
they  are  broken  by 
hand  or  by  a  butter- 
worker  or  kneading 

machine  (Fig.  16).  Salt  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  to  100  pounds  of  curd  is  added.  If  the 


FIG.  16.  —  Working  Neufchatel. 


CHEESES   WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR         103 

curd  is  not  sufficiently  pressed,  the  masses  become 
mushy  or  pasty  during  the  working  process.  The  work- 
ing is  continued  until  the  whole  mass  is  uniformly 
smooth  and  buttery. 

129.  Storage.  —  The  draining  and  working  processes 
permit  the  contamination  of  the  curd  with  organisms 
from  the  air  and  from  the  apparatus.  These  are  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  mass.  Air  is  also  worked 
thoroughly  into  the  curd.  Such  a  product  spoils  quickly. 
Distributing  houses  find  the  Neufchatel  trade  uncertain 
in  volume  from  day  to  day,  hence  many  of  them  store 
the  cheese  in  bulk  and  package  only  fast  enough  to  fill 
orders.  This  minimizes  the  loss  due  to  spoilage.  Such 
curd  may  be  packed  into  tubs  and  kept  for  considerable 
time  in  cold  storage.  If  molded  for  the  retail  trade,  it 
is  more  quickly  perishable.  When  packed  solidly  in 
mass,  curd  is  largely  protected  from  spoilage  by  the  ex- 
clusion of  air  and  perhaps  the  quick  exhaustion  of  free 
oxygen  through  the  respiration  of  the  micro-organisms 
present  and  by  its  acidity.  This  must  be  supplemented 
by  low  temperature  to  reduce  the  loss  to  a  minimum. 
Even  when  spoilage  begins,  it  is  easily  confined  to  the 
slight  growth  of  Oidium  lactis  or  green  mold  and  bacteria 
on  exposed  areas.  These  can  be  removed  with  minimum 
loss  and  damage  to  the  mass.  On  the  other  hand,  such 
curd  molded  into  the  commercial  package  of  3  to  6 
ounces  and  wrapped  in  paper,  with  tin-foil  or  carton  for 
protection,  still  presents  enormously  increased  surface 
for  the  growth  of  aerobic  forms  —  especially  Oidium 
lactis,  green  mold  (Roquefort  mold  is  the  usual  green 
species)  and  accompanying  bacteria.  Curd  in  tubs  may 
be  kept  some  days;  in  commercial  packages  lowering 
of  quality  (flavor)  begins  almost  at  once. 


104  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

130.  Molding.  —  When  the  standard  molding  ma- 
chine (Fig.  17)  is  provided,  curd  is  brought  directly  from 
the  refrigerator  to  the  machine.  If  permitted  to  be- 
come warm,  the  mass  becomes  sticky;  when  cold  it 
is  more  readily  handled.  The  machine  is  fitted  with 
the  special  delivery  tube  for  the  variety  to  be  handled, 
cylindrical  for  Neufchatel  in  its  various  forms,  rectangular 
in  section  for  cream.  Enough  workers  should  be  pro- 
vided to  wrap  and  label  the  cheese  without  leaving  it 


FIG.  17. —  Molding  Neufchatel. 

exposed  to  contamination  or  heat.  Parchment  paper 
and  tin-foil  cut  the  proper  size  for  each  variety  and  bear- 
ing printed  labels  are  readily  obtainable.  Each  cheese 
should  be  wrapped  with  paper  and  tin-foil  and  put  directly 
into  a  flat  box  which  holds  a  standard  number  (usually 
12  or  24)  of  the  special  product. 

In  working  with  the  hand  molding  tube  (Fig.  15) 
the  same  care  is  required.  Chilled  curd  is  forced  into  a 
firm  smooth  mass  with  the  plunger.  It  is  removed 


CHEESES   WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR         105 

and   wrapped   when   it   reaches   the  regular  size  of  the 
variety. 

All  forms  when  molded  go  directly  into  the  boxes  and 
then  back  to  the  refrigerators  until  demanded  for  actual 
use.  The  details  of  the  process  differ  according  to  the 
form  made. 

131.  Skimmed-milk  Neufchatel. —  Separator  skimmed- 
milk  is  frequently  made   into  curd  by  the  Neufchatel 
process.     The  absence  of  fat  eliminates  the  largest  element 
of  loss  in  manufacture.     Each  stage  of  the  making  process, 
therefore,  may  be  shortened.     The  demand  that  the  curd 
shall  be  smooth  and  buttery  in  texture  rather  than  rough 
or  gritty  requires  the  exercise  of  care  in  curdling  of  milk. 
The  draining  and  pressing  of  the  curd  may  be  accomplished 
much  more  rapidly  than  in  the  fatty  cheeses.     The  final 
product  should  differ  from  cottage  cheese  in  smoother 
texture,  milder  acidity  and,  as  a  rule,  cleaner  flavor.     In 
composition,  the  absence  of  fat  must  be  largely  compen- 
sated  by  leaving  more  water   in   the   cheese.     Such  a 
product  reaches  the  market  with  65  to  75  per  cent  of  water 
and  perhaps  1.25  per  cent  of  salt.     Casein  forms  20  to  30 
per  cent  of  the  mass. 

These  cheeses  are  very  perishable  on  account  of  their 
high  water-content.  The  destructive  effect  of  micro- 
organisms both  in  the  interior  of  the  cheese  and  upon  its 
surface  is  rapid. 

Cheeses  of  this  description  may  be  found  in  the  trade 
as  cottage  cheese,  Neufchatel  style,  and  as  Neufchatel 
made  from  skimmed-milk ;  skimmed-milk  Neufchatel 
would  be  a  strictly  proper  labeling. 

132.  Baker's  cheese.  —  There  is  considerable  market 
for  skimmed-milk  curd  as  Baker's  cheese.     This  product 
is  essentially   skimmed-milk  Neufchatel   curd,  partially 


106  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

drained  and  sold  in  bulk.  When  the  bakery  is  near  by,  the 
curd  is  frequently  shoveled  into  milk-cans  in  very  wet 
condition  and  sent  directly  from  the  factory  to  the  bakery. 
If  the  distance  is  such  as  to  require  considerable  time 
for  transportation,  the  same  care  is  frequently  given 
as  for  Neufchatel  curd  packed  in  bulk  for  storage  and 
transportation. 

Great  variations  in  practice  are  found  among  the 
makers  of  this  type  of  product.  In  some  cases  low  grade 
skimmed-milk  is  handled  on  a  large  scale.  Curdling  is 
done  quickly  and  little  care  is  given  to  the  details  of  flavor 
and  texture  in  the  curd.  Working  in  this  manner,  two 
men  are  able  to  make  a  ton  of  such  curd,  and  ship  it  out 
in  milk-cans  each  day.  The  resulting  product,  although 
very  deficient  in  flavor  and  texture,  goes  into  manufac- 
tured specialties  which  conceal  its  deficiencies  if  con- 
sidered as  cheese. 

133.  Domestic  Neufchatel.  —  The  name  Neufchatel, 
unless  limited  clearly  by  the  label,  should  designate  a 
cheese  made  from  fresh  whole  milk.  Cheeses  of  this 
group  are  produced  in  a  small  number  of  well-equipped 
factories  scattered  widely  through  the  dairy  states  of 
the  North  and  Northeast.  Every  factory  uses  one  or 
more  trade  names  for  its  product.  The  same  product  is 
frequently  relabeled  by  the  distributor  who  uses  his  own 
trade  name  instead  of  that  of  the  maker. 

The  usual  form  of  package  is  cylindrical,  about  if 
inches  in  diameter  and  2^  inches  long,  or  sometimes 
rectangular  2^  by  1|  by  1^  inches.  The  cheese  is  pro- 
tected by  wrapping  in  parchment  paper  closely  surrounded 
by  tin-foil.  These  packages  vary  from  2^  to  4  ounces. 
In  some  cases  screw-topped  glass  jars  are  substituted  for 
the  tin-foil  package.  They  are  objectionable,  first,  be- 


CHEESES   WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR         107 

cause  of  cost  and,  second,  because  they  are  so  commonly 
associated  with  less  perishable  products  as  to  mislead 
either  dealer  or  consumer  into  holding  the  product  for 
too  long  a  time.  The  paper  or  tin-foil  package  can  be 
kept  only  at  refrigerator  temperature,  hence  automat- 
ically keeps  its  possessor  reminded  of  the  perishable  nature 
of  its  contents. 

Neufchatel  of  the  best  quality  made  from  whole  milk 
testing  about  4  per  cent  fat  may  be  expected  to  fall 
within  the  following  limits ; 1  many  grades  contain  more 
water  than  this  at  the  expense  of  flavor  and  keeping 
quality : 

Water 50-55  per  cent 

Fat 23-28  per  cent 

Casein 18-21  per  cent 

Salt  .     , 0.5-1.25  per  cent 

Yield  12-14  Ib.  per  100  Ib.  of  milk. 

134.  Partially  skim  Neufchatel.  —  Brands  of  Neuf- 
chatel made  from  milk  that  would  test  every  gradation 
from  whole  milk  to  separator  skimmed-milk  may  be 
found.  The  quality  of  the  product  varies  with  the  skill 
of  the  maker  from  brands  no  better  than  cottage  cheese 
to  products  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  best  whole- 
milk  Neufchatel.  Many  factories  that  produce  more 
than  one  quality  of  Neufchatel  use  labels  of  different 
color,  different  design  or  both  to  separate  them;  for 
example,  blue  labels  usually  stand  for  whole  milk,  red 
labels  represent  lower  grades.  Sometimes  the  difference 
in  material  is  indicated  by  a  clear  cut  grade  mark.  Fre- 
quently color,  a  design  of  label  or  both  are  the  only 
definite  marks  upon  the  cheese.  The  consumer  un- 
familiar with  the  trade  practice  commonly  has  no  means 
of  knowing  the  quality  of  the  product  offered.  Such 

1  Taken  from  Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  78,  page  328. 


108  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

cheeses  vary  in  water-content  from  55  to  70  per  cent; 
in  fat  from  10  to  25  per  cent;  in  casein  from  18  to  25 
per  cent. 

135.  Cream  cheese.  —  The  Neufchatel  process  is  also 
used  to  make  cream  cheese.  The  material  utilized  is 
commonly  what  has  been  called  double  cream.  This  is 
produced  by  separating  about  half  of  a  given  volume  of 
milk  and  running  the  cream  into  the  other  half.  Usually 
cream  cheese  is  made  in  the  same  factory  as  various 
grades  of  Neufchatel.  No  material  is  lost.  In  some 
instances,  cream  cheese  is  prepared  by  working  thick 
cream  into  the  Neufchatel  type  of  curd  from  practically 
skimmed-milk.  In  working  with  high  percentages  of  fat  in 
curd,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  loss  of  fat  in  draining 
and  pressing.  The  curd  is  carefully  chilled  before  press- 
ing to  reduce  this  loss.  This  may  be  done  under  refriger- 
ation or  upon  cracked  ice.  Otherwise  the  manipulations 
of  the  process  are  unchanged.  The  cheeses  are  commonly 
molded  in  the  Neufchatel  machine  into  square  cakes 
weighing  about  4  ounces  and  measuring  approximately 
3  by  2  J  by  |  inches.  These  are  wrapped  in  paper  and 
tin-foil  and  handled  exactly  as  Neufchatel. 

Cream  cheese  of  high  quality  made  from  reenforced 
milk  testing  7  to  9  per  cent  fat  may  be  expected  to  test 
approximately  as  follows : l 

Water 38-43  per  cent 

Fat 43-48  per  cent 

Protein 13-16  per  cent 

Salt 0.5-1.25  per  cent 

Yield  16-18  Ib.  per  100  Ib.  of  cream. 

Increases  of  water,  hence  greater  yields,  are  very  com- 
mon but  usually  associated  with  loss  in  quality  both  as 
1  Taken  from  Conn.  (Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  78,  page  328. 


CHEESES  WITH  SOUR-MILK  FLAVOR         109 

to  flavor  and  texture,  and  in  more  rapid  spoilage ;  certain 
brands  regularly  carry  50  to  60  per  cent  of  fat  but  their 
increased  cost  of  manufacture  and  sale  restricts  them  to 
the  role  of  specialties  with  closely  limited  distribution. 
Trade  names  such  as  Philadelphia  Cream,  Cow  Brand, 
Eagle  Brand,  Square  Cream,  Blue  Label  and  many  other 
factory  brands  are  on  the  market. 

136.  Neufchatel    specialties.  —  Neufchatel    or    cream 
cheese   curd   is   frequently   mixed   with   some   flavoring 
substance,  such  as  pimiento  (pickled  Spanish  peppers), 
olives,  nuts,  spices  or  other  cheeses,  such  as  Roquefort. 
These  bear  appropriate  trade  names  and  form  a  very 
attractive  addition  to  our  varieties  of  cheese.     Among 
the  names  found  are  Pimiento,  Olive,  Nut,  and  Pirn-olive 
or  Olimento. 

137.  Gervais  is  a  brand  of  cream  cheese  made  in  Paris 
and  sold  widely  in  France  and  even  in  other  continental 
countries.     It  occasionally  comes  to  America.     As  made 
in  Paris,  these  cheeses  are  flat  cakes  containing  approx- 
imately 40  per  cent  water  and  35-45  per  cent  fat.     It 
clearly  differs  only  in  detail  from  the  square  cream  cheeses 
made  in  America.     The  name  Gervais  is  the  property 
of  a  particular  company.     Since  the  cheese  differs  in  no 
essential  feature  from  other  cream    cheeses,  this  name 
should  not  be  applied  to  a  domestic  cream  brand. 

138.  European  forms  occasionally  imported.  —  Among 
the  cheeses  related  to  Neufchatel  as  they  reach  the  market 
are  the  "  White  "  cheeses  of  southern  Europe.    These 
differ  greatly  in  quality  according  to  their  source  and 
to  their  content  of  cow,  sheep,  goat's  milk  or  some  com- 
bination of  these.     This  texture  and  flavor  link  them 
with    unripened    Neufchatel.     The    time    required    for 
importation  puts  a  minimum  possible  period  of  ten  to  fif- 


110  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

teen  days  between  production  and  consumption  with  a 
probable  period  of  at  least  one  month  for  most  samples. 
As  they  come  to  America,  these  forms  usually  show 
fermentive  changes  beyond  those  tolerated  in  the  do- 
mestic product.  This  may  take  either  of  several  forms : 

(1)  intensification  of  acid  flavor  with  the  intensification 
of  the  characteristic   flavors   of  the   particular   brand; 

(2)  the  development  of  old  or  rancid  flavors ;   (3)   the  de- 
velopment of  Oidium  and  partial  softening  of  the  mass 
through  its  agency;    (4)  the  growth  of  Roquefort  mold 
and    development    of   the    flavor   associated    with    that 
organism.     This  last  form  was  found  in  a  shipment  of 
Hungarian  Briuse  which  showed  about  40  per  cent  fat, 
14  per  cent  protein  and  43  per  cent  water. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SOFT   CHEESES    RIPENED    BY   MOLD 

THE  ripened  soft  cheeses  include  a  series  of  groups  of 
varieties  which,  in  addition  to  initial  souring,  have  been 
subjected  to  special  ripening  processes,  and  which  in 
the  ripened  condition  are  soft  in  texture  and  mostly  have 
high  flavors.  The  varieties  in  each  group  have  in  com- 
mon some  essential  principles  of  manufacture  together 
with  a  ripening  process  dominated  by  a  characteristic 
group  of  organisms.  In  certain  groups,  the  ripening  is 
dominated  by  a  yellowish  or  orange  viscid  surface  slime 
containing  Oidium  lactis  and  bacteria;  in  another  series, 
the  characteristic  organism  is  a  mold  of  the  genus  Pen- 
icillium  (P.  Camemberti).  Referring  to  the  analysis  of 
groups  (page  83),  the  ripened  soft  cheeses  are  found  to 
fall  into  three  well-marked  groups,  one  of  which  may  per- 
haps be  subdivided  as  indicated.  The  series  curdled  by 
souring  alone  begins  with  approximately  cottage  cheese 
curd  and  develops  high  flavors  by  ripening,  as  in  "  hand  " 
cheese.  Ripened  Neufchatel  curdled  by  souring  and 
rennet  together  finds  its  basis  in  Neufchatel  curd  also 
but  modifies  the  final  product  until  the  familiar  flavor 
and  texture  of  the  unripened  form  are  no  longer  recogniz- 
able. Among  the  forms  curdled  by  rennet  alone  the 
Camembert  series  contains  one  form,  Coulommiers,  which 
is  occasionally  used  unripe,  but  represents  in  general  a 
mold-ripened  group  of  highly  flavored  forms.  The  series 

111 


112  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

of  soft  rennet  cheeses  ripened  by  bacteria  may  be  broadly 
designated  the  Limburger  group. 

139.  Hand  cheese  and  its  allies.  —  Among  skim 
cheeses,  there  is  a  series  of  forms  largely  German  in 
origin  in  which  curd  not  far  removed  from  cottage  cheese 
is  the  basis  of  the  product.  Harz  cheese  "is  one  of  the 
best-known  of  these  forms  as  studied  by  Eckles  and  Rahn.1 
One  of  these  forms,  hand  cheese,2  is  manufactured  on 
a  commercial  basis  in  farm  dairies  among  families  of 
German  descent  principally  in  Pennsylvania,  and  on  a 
factory  basis  in  a  few  places  in  New  York,  northern 
Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  On  the  small  scale,  curd  is  made 
by  natural  souring  or  by  use  of  starter,  heated  to  expel 
water,  cooled  and  molded  by  hand  into  cakes  two  to  three 
inches  in  diameter  and  one-half  to  three-quarters  inch  in 
thickness.  The  freshly  formed  cakes  are  placed  upon  a 
shelf  to  dry.  There  they  are  turned  daily  until  fairly  firm, 
then  packed  in  rolls  into  wooden  boxes  and  ripened  in  a 
cool  damp  room.  In  this  ripening  there  is  a  prompt 
development  of  a  heavy  viscous  slime,  which  consists  of 
Oidium  and  bacteria.  Other  molds  forming  loose  cottony 
mycelium  are  brushed  off  if  they  appear.  The  proper 
consistency  of  this  slimy  covering  depends  on  a  close 
adjustment  of  water-content  in  the  cheese  with  tempera- 
ture and  relative  humidity  in  the  ripening  room.  If 
conditions  are  too  dry,  the  cheeses  harden  quickly  or  if 
less  dry  they  are  attacked  by  green  or  blue-green  molds. 
If  too  wet,  the  slimy  covering  becomes  too  soft  and  watery, 
or  secondarily  covered  with  loose  shimmering  masses  of 

1  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  O.  Rahn,  Die  Reifung  des  Harzkases, 
Centralb.  f.  Bakt.  etc.  2  abt.  14  (1905),  pages  676-680. 

2  Monrad,  J.  H.,  Hand  cheese,  N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  etc.  25 
(1908),  16,  page  644. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD         113 

mold  (Mucor  sp.).     Ripening  should  proceed  slowly  and 
occupy  a  period  of  six  to  eight  weeks. 

140.  Pennsylvania  pot  cheese.  —  A  form  of  "  pot " 
cheese  is  made  in  certain  counties  of  Pennsylvania,  prin- 
cipally for  local  use.  Production  of  this  cheese  on  a  fac- 
tory basis  is  now  being  attempted.  The  steps  in  manu- 
facture are  about  as  follows  :  *  (1)  The  home-made  type  of 
cottage  cheese  curd  is  prepared,  put  into  a  crock  or  pot 
and  covered  carefully;  (2)  kept  in  a  warm  place  (in 
kitchen  usually) ;  (3)  stirred  from  time  to  time,  until 
it  has  ripened  to  a  semi-liquid  condition.  This  occurs 
very  rapidly  under  the  attack  of  Oidium  lactis  accompanied 
by  bacteria.  Within  a  period  of  three  to  seven  days, 
according  to  the  temperature  and  to  the  water-content 
of  the  mass,  the  granules  of  curd  become  covered  with  a 
wrinkled  gelatinous  almost  viscid  mass  of  mold  mycelium 
beneath  which  is  a  layer  of  semi-liquid  curd  with  a  strong 
characteristic  odor  and  taste.  This  ripened  or  semi- 
liquid  part  reaches  about  half  the  total  mass  in  four  or 
five  days  at  favorable  temperatures.  (4)  The  vessel 
is  then  placed  in  a  larger  vessel  of  water  and  heated  over 
the  fire  with  constant  stirring  until  the  whole  mass  is 
melted  and  smooth.  (5)  Butter  or  cream,  and  salt  or 
other  flavor  is  finally  added,  stirred  in  and  the  liquid  cheese 
poured  into  molds  or  jelly  glasses  to  cool.  If  properly 
made  and  cooked,  the  resultant  cheese  has  a  soft  buttery 
consistency  with  an  agreeable  flavor,  which  frequently 
resembles  that  of  Camembert  cheese. 


1  The  authors  are  under  obligations  to  Mrs.  E.  E.  Kiernan 
for  her  description  of  this  process  (in  the  Somerset  County 
Leader,  Jan.  10,  1908)  and  her  letters  concerning  it.  The 
statement  of  the  process  given  here  combines  the  published 
statement  with  the  results  of  our  own  experiments. 


114  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

141.  Appetitost  (Appetite  cheese).  —  A  Danish  butter- 
milk cheese  is  made  under  this  name.     Sour  buttermilk 
is  heated,  by  some  to  boiling  temperature  but  others 
(Monrad  l)  prefer  120°  F.,  stirred  thoroughly  and  allowed 
to  settle.     The  whey  is  removed  as  far  as  possible.     The 
semi-liquid  mass  is  covered  and  set  in  a  warm  place. 
Fermentation  becomes  active.     This  tends  to  make  the 
curd  more  viscous  or  sticky.     It  is  then  kneaded  and 
allowed  to  ferment  again.     This  process  is  repeated  until 
the  mass  is  yellowish  and  soft  but  tough  or  viscous. 
When  thoroughly  fermented,  the  mass  is  again  heated 
to  120°  F.,  and  6  per  cent  salt  is  added  together  with 
spice ;   both  are  worked  in  and  the  cheese  is  formed  into 
fancy  shapes  for  sale. 

142.  Ripened    Neufchatel,    French    process.  —  Neuf- 
chatel as  a  ripened  cheese  is  made  rather  widely  in  France 
but  it  is  produced  on  an  especially  large  scale  in  Seine- 
Inferieure.2     Some  factories  use  whole  milk,  or  milk  with 
added    cream,    others   skimmed-milk.3     The   whole-milk 
brands  of  Neufchatel  are  those  which  have  the  widest 
reputation.     For  making  this  cheese,  the  working  room 
is  held  as  closely  as  possible  at  15-16°  C.    (58-60°  F.). 
The  milk  is  strained  into  earthen  vessels  holding  twenty 
liters.     Rennet  is  added  to  the  freshly  drawn  milk  at 
about  30°  C.   (86°  F.)  in  amount  sufficient  to  produce 
coagulation  in  about  twenty-four  hours.     Draining  racks 

1  Monrad,  J.   H.,  Appetitost,  N.   Y.   Produce  Rev.  etc.   25 
(1908),  16,  page  644. 

2  Pouriau,  A.  F.,  La  Laiterie,  sixiSme  ed.  par  Marcel  Mon- 
teran,  page  453,  Paris,  1908. 

3  Among  the  varietal  names  for  Neufchatel  cheese  from  whole 
milk    or   with    added    cream   are   Petits  Bondons,    Malakoffs, 
Carres  affines.     Among  low  fat    or  skim  forms,  Petit  Suisse, 
Gournay. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD          115 

of  various  forms  are  covered  with  cloth.  The  vessels  of 
curd  are  dumped  upon  the  racks.  The  whey  separates 
slowly  and  drains  off  through  the  cloth.  About  twelve 
hours  are  allowed  for  this  process.  The  corners  of  the 
cloth  are  then  brought  together  and  folded  in  or  tied  and 
the  mass  pressed  to  complete  the  drainage.  The  finished 
curd  is  worked  or  kneaded  to  produce  a  smooth  and 
uniform  texture.  This  process  of  curd-making  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  American  factory  process  of  making 
Neufchatel.  The  ripening  process  has  been  entirely 
dropped  in  America.  The  curd  is  finally  molded  in 
metal  forms  5  cm.  (2  inches)  in  diameter  and  about 
6.7  cm.  (about  3  inches)  high,  open  at  both  ends.  These 
molds  are  filled,  the  freshly  formed  cheeses  are  pressed 
out  with  a  plunger  or  piston  and  their  surfaces  smoothed 
with  a  wooden  knife. 

After  molding  is  completed,  the  cheeses  are  salted 
by  sprinkling  the  entire  surface  with  fine  dry  salt  as  the 
cheese  is  held  in  the  hand.  In  this  way  each  cheese  re- 
ceives and  absorbs  3  to  4  per  cent  salt.  After  salting, 
the  cheeses  are  arranged  upon  boards  and  allowed  to  drain 
twenty-four  hours.  They  are  then  removed  to  the  first 
or  drying  room.  The  frames  of  the  drying  room  (secherie) 
are  covered  with  straw  and  the  cheeses  are  placed  care> 
fully  upon  the  straw  to  avoid  contact  with  each  other. 
They  are  turned  each  day  to  present  a  fresh  surface  to 
the  straw  during  a  period  of  two  to  three  weeks  in  the 
drying  room  (secherie).  Mold  begins  to  show  as  white 
cottony  mycelium  after  five  to  six  days,  and  slowly  turns 
to  "blue"  (bluish  green).  When  the  cheeses  are  well 
covered  with  this  moldy  rind,  they  are  removed  to  the 
ripening  cellar.  In  the  ripening  cellar  also  the  cheeses 
stand  upon  straw.  They  are  turned  over  every  three  or 


116  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

four  days  at  first,  then  allowed  to  stand  for  a  longer 
period. 

When  ripe,  a  Neufchatel  cheese  so  made  weighs  about 
125  grams.  One  liter  of  milk  makes  225  grams  of  such 
cheese.  The  ripening  of  Neufchatel  has  never  been  fully 
studied,  but  a  series  of  these  cheeses  were  obtained  by  one 
of  the  authors ;  cultures  were  made  and  examined.1  The 
salt-content  in  the  first  place  was  found  to  be  so  high 
that  Oidium  lactis  was  eliminated  as  an  active  factor 
in  the  ripening.  The  mold  proved  to  be  on  some 
cheeses  Penicillium  Camemberti,  the  typical  mold  of 
Camembert  as  it  is  made  in  Normandy,  on  others  P. 
Camemberti  var.  Rogeri,  the  pure  white  form  as  used 
under  the  patents  of  M.  Georges  Roger  in  the  region  of 
Seine-et-Marne  to  the  eastward  of  Paris  and  called  by 
him  and  by  Maze  P.  candidum.  The  physical  condition 
of  the  ripened  curd  and  the  flavors  encountered  were 
those  associated  with  these  two  species  by  many  hundreds 
of  experiments  during  the  Camembert  investigation  in 
Connecticut.2  These  facts  justify  the  conclusion  that 
ripened  Neufchatel  is  first  soured  by  lactic  organisms, 
then  so  salted  as  to  eliminate  or  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  characteristic  activities  of  Oidium  lactis,  while  the 
proteolytic  action  and  the  physical  changes  are  closely 
similar  to  those  of  Camembert  which  is  ripened  primarily 
by  the  same  molds. 

1  Thorn,  C.,  J.  N.  Currie  and  K.  J.  Matheson,  Studies  relat- 
ing to  the  Roquefort  and  Camembert  types  of  cheese,  Conn. 
(Storrs)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  79,  page  392. 

2  Full  discussion  of  this  product  is  found  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  115.     Camembert  cheese  problems  in  the 
U.  S.  also  published   as   Storrs  Exp.   Sta.   Bui.   58  with   the 
same  title.     Also  a  supplementary  paper  in  Bui.  79  of  Storrs 
Exp.  Sta. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY    MOLD          117 

143.  The  Camembert  group.  —  The  soft  cheeses  ripened 
by  molds  are  French  in  origin.     Their  manufacture  has 
spread  into  Germany,  Italy  and  America.    Of  the  series,  the 
most  widely  known  is  Camembert,  which  will  be  described 
as  typical  for  the  group.     Brie,  Coulommiers,  Robbiola 
and  Ripened  Neufchatel  belong  to  this  series. 

144.  Camembert  cheese.  —  The  origin  of  Camembert 
is  given  by  French  authorities  as  1791  in  the  Commune 
of  Camembert  near  Vimoutiers  in  Orne,  France.     From 
a  very  restricted  production  at  first,  Camembert-making 
has  spread  through  the  region  from  Caen  in  the  west 
to  Havre,  Rouen  and  a  considerable  area  east  of  Paris. 
In  America  Camembert  began  to  be  made  in  one  factory 
about  1900.     Several  other  factories  followed  by  1906. 
The  difficulties  and  losses  encountered  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  these  undertakings,  until  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  war  in  1914  but  one  factory  was  making  Ca- 
membert and  that  only  on  an  experimental  scale.     Mean- 
while the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  Storrs  Experiment  Station  had  taken  up  and  solved, 
on  an  experimental  basis,  most  of  the  problems  arising 
in   these   commercial   failures.    A   shortage   of   product 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  brought  about  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  a  series  of  factories.    The  product  as  put 
on  the  market  indicates  that  a  permanent  establishment 
of  Camembert-making  is  entirely  practicable. 

Camembert  cheese  is  made  from  cow's  milk  either  whole 
or  very  slightly  skimmed ;  the  removal  of  about  0.5  per  cent 
of  fat  has  been  found  to  be  desirable  if  not  actually  necessary. 

145.  Description  of  Camembert.1  —  These  cheeses  are 
made  in  sizes  2|  to  4^  inches  in  diameter  and  li  to  1^ 

1  Thorn,  C.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Circ.  145  (1909), 
page  339. 


118  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

inches  in  thickness.  They  are  ripened  by  the  agency  of 
molds  and  bacteria  which  form  a  felt-like  rind  over  their 
whole  surface,  Tg-  to  J  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This 
rind  may  be  dry  and  gray  or  grayish-green,  consisting 
of  a  felt-like  surface  of  mold  on  the  outside,  below  which 
a  harder  portion  consists  of  mold  embedded  in  partially 
dried  cheese,  or  the  moldy  part  may  be  more  or  less  com- 
pletely overgrown  or  displaced  by  yellowish  or  reddish 
slime  composed  mainly  of  bacteria.  Good  cheeses  may 
have  either  appearance. 

Inside  the  rind,  the  cheese  is  softened  progressively 
from  the  rind  toward  the  center  from  all  sides,  so  that  a 
fully  ripe  cheese  has  no  hard  sour  curd  in  the  center, 
but  is  completely  softened.  No  mold  should  be  visible 
inside  the  rind,  but  the  moldy  rind  itself  is  necessary 
because  the  ripening  is  caused  by  the  enzymes  secreted 
by  the  organisms  of  the  rind  into  the  cheese.  As  the 
curd  ripens,  the  changed  portion  assumes  a  slightly  deeper 
color  than  the  unripe  curd  as  a  result  of  chemical  changes. 
Well-ripened  cheeses  vary  from  nearly  a  fluid  texture  to 
the  consistency  of  moderately  soft  butter.  The  ripen- 
ing of  Camembert  is  finished  in  wooden  boxes  which  pro- 
tect the  cheeses  from  breaking  after  they  become  soft 
and  during  the  market  period. 

146.  Conditions  of  making  and  ripening.  —  These  pro- 
cesses depend  on  a  very  close  adjustment  between  the  com- 
position of  the  freshly  made  cheese  and  the  temperature 
and  humidity  of  the  rooms  in  which  the  cheeses  are  made 
and  ripened.  Very  slight  failures  in  control  bring  loss 
in  ultimate  results.  The  room  for  making  Camembert 
should  be  maintained  between  60°  and  70°  F.  and  should 
be  wet  enough  to  reduce  drying  to  a  minimum.  The 
essentials  of  apparatus  are  comparatively  inexpensive. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD 


119 


Work  on  a  factory  basis  calls,  however,  for  the  installa- 
tion of  special  tables  and  other  apparatus  to  utilize  space 


and  labor  to  advantage.  Rooms  are  protected  from 
change  of  weather  by  double  sash  in  the  windows.  Flies 
must  be  excluded  by  close-meshed  screens  for  all  doors 


120 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


and  windows  with  movable  sash.  The  equipment  in- 
stalled in  such  a  room  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  Curdling  cans 
are  ranged  on  a  shelf  a  few  inches  above  the  floor  along 
one  side  of  the  room  below  an  open  tin  trough  with  side 
branches.  This  open  trough  brings  the  milk  from  the 
mixing  vat  to  the  curdling  cans.  (The  open  tin  trough 
offers  no  lodgment  for  dirt.)  The  cans  hold  about  200 
pounds  of  milk,  are  about  12  inches  in  diameter  at  bottom, 
and  20  to  24  inches  at  top.  They  are  heavily  tinned. 
Iron  trucks  as  high  as  the  shelf  and  with  tops  the  same 

diameter  as  the 
bottoms  of  the 
cans  form  a  con- 
venient method 
of  bringing  cans 
of  curd  to  the 
very  edge  of  the 
draining  tables. 

The      wooden 
draining     tables 
are  placed  about 
32  inches  above 
the   floor;    they 

FIG.  19.  — Draining  mat  for  Camembert  cheese.     are  usually  made 

of  2-inch  lumber, 

have  raised  edges  and  slope  slightly  toward  the  wall. 
Whey  and  wash  water  are  thus  carried  to  a  draining  trough 
along  the  wall.  For  cheese-making,  each  is  covered  with 
a  strip  of  matting  consisting  of  wooden  strips  held  together 
by  thread  (Fig.  19).  The  strip  of  matting  should  be 
exactly  the  width  and  length  of  the  table.  The  hoops 
used  are  heavy  tin,  with  edges  turned  and  soldered,  about 
5  inches  high,  4f  inches  in  diameter  with  three  rows  of 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD          121 

holes  about  A  inch  in  diameter  and  2  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  These  hoops  are  placed  as  thickly  as  possible  upon 
the  mats. 

147.  Outline  of  making  process.  —  The  making  process l 
is  summarized  as  follows  (Thorn,  1909) : 

Starter.  —  From  0.5  to  1.0  per  cent  of  active  starter 
is  added  to  milk  kept  overnight  below  60°  F. 

Acidity  at  renneting.  —  Milk  titrated  to  phenol- 
phthalein  should  test  0.20  to  0.23  per  cent  calculated 
as  lactic  acid. 

Temperance  of  renneting.  —  84°— 86°  F.  is  used  for 
Camembert. 

Rennet.  —  From  3  to  5  oz.  of  standard  rennet  extract  to 
1000  Ib.  milk  (10-15  c.c.  per  100  Ib.  milk)  produces  a 
curd  of  proper  texture. 

Curdling  time.  —  To  reach  the  proper  condition  for 
handling,  1^  to  1^  hours  or  longer  is  required.  This 
is  indicated  by  the  onset  of  "  sweating  "  or  the  separa- 
tion of  large  drops  of  whey  on  the  surface  of  the 
solid  curd. 

Dipping.  —  A  long-handled  dipper  is  used  to  transfer 
curd  from  cans  to  hoops.  This  can  be  lowered  into  the 
hoop.  This  transfer  is  to  be  done  with  the  least  pos- 
sible breaking.  One  dipperful  is  transferred  at  a  time 
to  each  of  a  series  of  hoops.  By  the  time  the  series  is 
covered,  some  drainage  has  occurred  and  a  second  dip- 
perful is  added  to  the  contents  of  the  hoop.  In  this 
way  the  hoop  is  filled  within  a  period  of  two  to  four 
hours. 

Draining.  —  Hoops  when  properly  filled  have  taken 
in  approximately  2  quarts  of  milk  each.  No  pressure 

1  Lot  record  cards  for  the  making  and  ripening  of  Camembert 
are  given  on  pages  124  and  125. 


122  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

is  used.  Cheeses  drain  by  gravity.  They  stand  un- 
turned until  the  following  morning  when  they  should 
be  firm  enough  to  permit  turning  without  removing  the 
hoops.  The  cheeses  when  firm  enough  to  handle  (usually 
on  the  third  morning)  are  salted  by  dusting  the  entire 
surface  with  coarse  salt  and  permitting  all  that  adheres 
to  remain.  The  cheeses  should  then  be  removed  to  a 
room  at  about  58°  F.  to  prevent  too  rapid  leakage  of  water 
and  salt  from  their  surfaces.  Ripe  cheeses  of  good  qual- 
ity show  a  total  salt-content  varying  from  2.25  to  3  per 
cent  with  an  average  of  about  2.5  per  cent.  When  so 
handled  there  is  slight,  if  any,  loss  of  water  and  salt  in  the 
salting  period  of  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours.  At 
the  end  of  the  salting  period  such  cheeses  should  carry 
55  to  57  per  cent  water  or  slightly  more. 

148.  Acidity.  —  The  essential  biological  factor  in  the 
making  period  of  Camembert  is  proper  souring.  The 
milk  should  be  free  from  gassy  organisms.  The  lactic 
starter  required  should  introduce  the  typical  lactic  organ- 
ism (Streptococcus  lacticus)  in  numbers  sufficient  to  sup- 
press all  other  forms  during  the  next  twenty-four  hours. 
The  amount  of  acid  starter  introduced,  however,  plus  the 
acid  resulting  from  growth  during  the  curdling  period, 
should  not  produce  a  grainy  acid  curd.  The  tempera- 
tures of  handling  are  such  as  to  favor  this  group  of  organ- 
isms if  properly  introduced  and  permit  the  development 
of  nearly  1  per  cent  of  acid  (estimated  as  lactic)  by  the 
second  morning.  Cheeses  with  such  acid  are  fairly  free 
from  further  danger  from  bacterial  activity.  Members 
of  the  high-acid  group  (B.  Bulgaricus  and  allies)  may  be 
found  in  these  cheeses  but  do  not  appear  to  develop  in 
numbers  sufficient  to  affect  the  cheese  to  any  marked 
degree. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD          123 

149.  Ripening  the  cheese.  —  The  cheese  is  now  ready 
for  the  ripening  rooms  (Fig.  20).  For  this  process  tem- 
peratures between  52°  and  58°  F.  are  desirable ;  lower 


FIG.  20.  —  Halloir,  the  first  ripening  room  for  Camembert  in  an  American 

factory. 


124  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

CAMEMBERT   CHEESE    RECORD 

Date Set No. 

Amt.  milk No.  cheese Milk  per  cheese... 

Producer  of  milk 

Apparent  cleanliness  of  milk 

Acidity : 

Before  adding  starter „• 

After  adding  starter 

After  acidity  period 

Whey  at  dipping 

Starter : 

Kind a...-        Age Amt. 

Color : 

Amount 

Curdling : 

Temperature  used 

Amount  of  rennet 

Time  at  which  rennet  is  added 

Time  at  which  milk  is  curdled 

Time  of  curdling 

Quality  of  curd - 

Dipping : 

Cut  or  uncut 

Amt.  of  cutting 

Draining : 

Temperature  of  room  during 

Condition  of  cheese  after. 

Salting : 

Time  of Total  amt.  of  salt  used.. Kind  of  salt. 

Amt.  of  salt  per  cheese 

Mold  inoculation : 

Form  of  culture  used 

Method  of  inoculation 

Time  of  inoculation 

Remarks  on  making : 
Curing : 

Transfer  of  curing  rooms 

Condition  of  cheese 

Rooms — 

Dates.... 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED  BY    MOLD          125 


Mold  growth : 

Date  of  first  appearance 

Purity  and  vigor 

Date  of  changing  color 

Surface  of  slimy  growth  : 

Extent  of 

General  character  of 

Surface  contamination : 

Mold 

Oidium 

Yeast 

Bacterial. 

Wrapping : 

Date     Material 

Condition  of  cheese 

Ripening : 

Rapidity  of 

Texture 

Flavor : 

Ripened  curd 

Unripened  curd 

Special  treatment  and  reasons  for  same : 

Record  of  treatment  by  days 

Room Date Observations. 

ID  16  D. 

2D        .  17  D. 

3  D „  18  D. 

4  D  19  D. 

5  D 20  D. 

6  D  21  D. 

7  D  22  D. 

8  D      ...  23  D. 

9  D 24  D. 

10  D  25  D. 

11  D 26  D. 

12  D 27  D. 

13  D 28  D. 

14  D 29  D. 

15  D....  30  D. 

31  D. 


126  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

temperatures  only  delay  the  process;  higher  temper- 
atures favor  undesirable  fermentations.  The  cheeses 
rest  upon  coarse  matting  (Fr.  clayons)  consisting  of 
round  wooden  rods  about  the  size  of  a  pencil  separated 
1-1-J-  inches  and  held  in  position  by  wire  strands.  As- 
suming cheeses  of  optimum  composition  as  indicated  above, 
the  relative  humidity  of  the  ripening  rooms  should  be 
86  to  88  per  cent.  Higher  humidities  produce  too  rapid 
development  of  slimy  coatings;  too  low.  humidity  is 
indicated  by  drying,  shrinkage  and  the  growth  of  green 
molds  on  the  surface.  A  slight  and  very  slow  evapora- 
tion is  demanded ;  by  this  the  water-content  of  the  cheeses 
is  reduced  3  to  6  per  cent  in  two  weeks.  During  the 
first  two  weeks  of  ripening,  the  cheeses  commonly  show 
some  growth  of  yeast  and  Oidium  lactis  first,  followed 
by  cottony  white  areas  of  Camembert  mold  (Penicillium 
Camemberti).  This  mold  must  be  introduced  by  inocu- 
lation in  new  factories  but  once  firmly  established  in 
the  factory  will  propagate  itself  if  conditions  are  kept 
favorable.  Climatic  conditions  in  most  dairy  sections 
of  America  have  been  sufficiently  unfavorable  to  make 
more  or  less  continuous  use  of  pure  cultures  desirable. 
At  the  end  of  two  weeks,  Camembert  cheeses  should  show 
a  well-established  rind,  consisting  of  a  well-matted  felt 
work  of  mold  hyphse  through  the  outer  2  mm.  (^  inch) 
of  the  whole  surface  of  the  cheese.  More  or  less  of 
the  pale  gray-green  fruit  of  the  characteristic  Penicillium 
Camemberti  can  usually  be  seen.  Beginning  at  about 
twelve  to  fourteen  days,1  a  softening  of  the  curd  is  first 

1  Bosworth,  A.  W.,  Chemical  studies  of  Camembert  cheese, 
N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  5,  pages  23-39,  1907. 

Dox,  A.  W.,  Proteolytic  changes  in  the  ripening  of  Camembert 
cheese,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  109,  pages  1-24, 
1908. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD          127 

directly  detectable  under  the  rind.  This  is  preceded  by 
the  disappearance  of  the  acidity  of  the  curd,  which  pro- 
gresses inward.  The  softening  of  the  curd  follows  closely 
the  lowering  of  the  acidity.  Thus  a  litmus  test  taken 
along  the  cut  face  of  a  Camembert  cheese  at  any  stage 
of  softening  will  always  show  a  sharp  acid  reaction  in 
the  solid  sour  portion  which  changes  to  alkaline  just 
before  the  softening  due  to  proteolytic  action  becomes 
noticeable.  These  two  changes  appear  to  be  due  to  en- 
zymes secreted  by  the  mycelium  of  the  Penicillium  Cam  em- 
berti  and  Oidium  lactis  which  constitute  the  most  active 
factors  in  the  ripening.  Some  accessory  bacterial  action 
is  indicated  but  of  minor  importance  in  the  changes  found. 

To  avoid  loss  from  breaking,  after  the  softening  of  the 
curd  has  fairly  begun,  the  cheeses  must  be  removed  from 
the  coarse  matting  to  smooth  boards  where  they  are 
watched  and  turned  repeatedly,  or  as  in  the  more  common 
practice,  wrapped  at  once  in  parchment  paper  and  boxed. 
The  ripening  may  be  completed  in  either  way.  The 
conditions  necessary  are  such  as  to  favor  the  extension 
of  slimy  areas  of  bacteria  over  part  or  all  of  the  rind  to 
the  exclusion  of  further  development  of  gray-green  fruit- 
ing areas  of  mold. 

Complete  softening  may  occur  in  three  weeks  in  cheeses 
in  which  evaporation  has  gone  on  too  slowly.  Such 
cheeses  are  found  to  contain  51  to  55  per  cent  of  water 
when  ripe  and  decay  very  quickly.  If  handled  properly, 
the  water-content  should  fall  from  about  57  per  cent  at 
the  beginning  of  ripening  to  48  per  cent  at  its  completion 
which  should  require  a  minimum  period  of  about  four 
weeks.  It  is  more  desirable  that  a  cheese  four  weeks  old 
show  a  thin  core  of  sour  curd  in  the  center  than  that  it 
be  entirely  liquid  at  that  age. 


128 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


150.  Composition.  —  Properly  ripe  Camembert  shows 
about  the  following  range  of  composition :  Water  47  to 
49  per  cent ;  fat  25  to  28  per  cent ;  protein  18  to  21  per 
cent;  salt  2.2  per  cent  to  2.8  per  cent.  Variations  out- 
side these  limits  are  usually  associated  with  less  desirable 
qualities.  The  approximate  limits  and  characters  out- 
lined for  Camembert  still  leave  a  considerable  latitude 
for  variations  in  practice  which  characterize  the  output 
of  particular  factories  in  a  producing  group.  At  one 


FIG.  21.  —  Very  soft  Camembert  cheese. 

extreme  are  brands  of  Camembert  cheese  which  are  very 
soft  (Fig.  21),  some  of  them  actually  liquid  when  ripe,  and 
which  have  very  strong  odor  and  taste ;  one  such  brand 
has  held  first  place  in  the  trade  of  certain  American 
cities  for  years.  Another  popular  brand  when  fully  ripe 
is  wrell  covered  with  yellow-orange  viscid  slime  1  but  is 

1  Esten,  W.  M.,  and  C.  J.  Mason,  Bact.  Stud,  of  Camembert 
cheese,  Storrs  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  83  (1915),  pages  103-111. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD 


129 


fairly  firm  in  texture  with  high  flavor;  still  others  show 
dry  moldy  surfaces  and  mild  flavors.  The  product  of 
certain  factories  is  always  characterized  by  the  presence 
and  characteristic  ammoniacal  odor  of  Penicillium  br&vi- 
caule. 

Each  of  these  forms  seems  to  appeal  to  some  classes 
of  consumers,  so  that  in  handling  imported  Camembert 
the  trade  comes  to  assign  the  product  to  specific  groups 
of  purchasers  according  to  the  conditions  observed  at 
its  arrival  from  Europe. 

151.  Factory.  —  The  type  of  factory  to  be  used  in 
making  and  ripening  Camembert  must  be  adjusted  to 


•wiiwaii. 

f    i 
II 


MM 


FIG.  22. —  Camembert  cheese  factory  at  Lisieux,  France.     The  square 
windows  are  seen  in  the  second-floor  rooms. 

the  climate.  This  product  originated  in  the  Normandy 
section  of  France  which  is  but  a  few  feet  above  sea  level, 
is  swept  by  winds  from  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  has  a  narrow 
range  of  temperature,  with  highly  humid  conditions.  In 
that  region,  every  effort  must  be  made  to  secure  ventila- 


130  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

tion  to  carry  off  the  necessary  amount  of  evaporation 
water.  In  contrast,  most  of  the  dairy  sections  of  America 
have  land  instead  of  sea  breezes,  much  higher  altitudes, 
much  greater  extremes  of  temperature  and  a  lower  range 
of  relative  humidities.  The  conditions  of  an  upstairs 
room  full  of  windows  in  Normandy  (Fig.  22)  are  most 
readily  reproduced  in  rooms  partly  or  completely  be- 
low ground  in  this  country.  The  industry  calls  for  the 
production  and  maintenance  of  a  specific  set  of  working 
conditions.  These  are  furnished  by  nature  in  northern 
France,  probably  also  in  certain  Pacific  coast  areas,  but 
must  be  artificially  obtained  where  the  climate  is  un- 
favorable. 

152.  Economic  factors.  —  Camembert  cheeses  show 
a  yield  of  about  13  pounds  to  100  pounds  of  milk  testing 
4  per  cent  fat.  At  roughly  one-half  pound  each,  the 
number  of  cheeses  will  be  approximately  twenty-six. 
Assuming  no  losses  and  a  wholesale  price  of  15  cents 
each,  the  wholesale  value  of  100  pounds  of  milk  would 
be  $3.90.  The  labor  cost  of  production  is  high,  the  pack- 
age represents  (box,  wrapping  and  label)  at  least  1-J 
cents  a  cheese.  The  time  between  the  purchase  and  the 
consumption  of  the  cheese  will  average  about  one  month. 
Few  cheeses  actually  remain  this  length  of  time  in  the 
possession  of  the  maker.  This  short  investment  period, 
therefore,  is  a  distinct  advantage  of  Camembert.  Among 
disadvantages,  however,  the  extremely  perishable  char- 
acter of  the  fully  ripe  cheese  makes  provision  of  an  ade- 
quate and  constant  market  essential.  Losses  due  to 
failures  in  manufacturing  or  ripening  conditions  are  also 
frequent.  Excessive  heat  in  summer  and  very  cold 
periods  in  winter  are  both  unfavorable.  The  Camembert- 
maker  cannot,  therefore,  use  the  cheapest  milk  of  the 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   MOLD          131 

summer  months  at  all  and  the  losses  entailed  by  failure 
of  control  in  winter  fall  on  the  most  costly  milk  of  the 
year.  Camembert  requires,  therefore,  careful  selection 
of  the  location  for  manufacture  and  ripening,  effective 
control  of  conditions  throughout  the  period  and  adequate 
marketing  facilities.  Camembert  at  its  best  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  all  cheeses ;  when  bad,  it  becomes  quickly 
inedible  and  is  a  total  loss. 

153.  French  Brie.1  —  Brie  cheese  has  its  center  of 
production  in  Seine-et-Marne,  east  of  Paris  in  northern 
France.  The  apparatus,  arrangement  of  the  factories 
and  details  of  manipulation  differ  from  those  described 
for  Camembert,  but  the  final  product  is  in  flavor  and 
texture  closely  related  to  Camembert.  Brie  cheeses  are 
the  same  thickness  as  Camembert,  1  to  \\  inches ;  in  diam- 
eter, however,  there  are  three  or  more  sizes  varying 
from  8  to  16  inches,  or  even  greater.  The  largest  cheeses 
weigh  5  to  6  pounds.  As  in  Camembert,  practices  of 
making  and  ripening  vary  to  such  a  degree  as  to  produce 
various  qualities  of  product.  These  run  from  whole  milk 
through  all  shades  of  skimming.  Perhaps  the  best 
established  practice  puts  the  cheese -making  room  next 
to  the  "stalls  of  the  cows.  The  milk  is  drawn,  strained 
directly  into  the  curdling  cans  and  renneted  while  still 
warm,  — 86-92°  F.  (30-33°  C.).  No  lactic  starter  is 
added  and  no  ripening  period  is  given  to  the  milk.  The 
other  manipulations  differ  only  in  detail  from  Camembert. 
Ripening  of  Brie  follows  the  same  course  with  the  same 
organic  agents,  namely,  Camembert  mold  (Penicillium 
Camemberti)  and  Oidium  lactis  with  the  accompaniment 
of  a  mixture  of  slimy  organisms  upon  the  surface  of  the 

1  See  page  134  for  domestic  or  American  use  of  the  name 
Brie. 


132  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

cheese.  The  process  admits  of  many  minor  modifications 
each  capable  of  affecting  the  product  in  a  characteristic 
way.  The  judgment  and  skill  of  the  maker  is  given 
a  wide  opportunity  to  establish  and  work  toward  a  par- 
ticular ideal  of  appearance  and  texture  and  flavor.  Brands 
with  characteristic  qualities,  therefore,  command  their 
own  market. 

Brie  as  known  in  France  must  not  be  confused  with  the 
American  "  dTsigny,"  or  with  the  particular  sizes  of  that 
type  which  have  been  called  Brie  on  account  of  diameter 
only.  Very  little  Brie  as  known  in  France  has  been  made 
in  America  and  only  a  limited  amount  has  been  imported 
for  very  restricted  trade. 

154.  Coulommiers.  —  Another  member  of  the  Camem- 
bert  group  is  called,  from  its  place  of  origin,  Coulommiers. 
This  form  is  made  at  the  same  thickness  as  Camembert 
and  about  5j  inches  in  diameter.  It  appears  as  either 
a  ripened  or  unripe  cheese.  As  a  ripened  cheese,  Coulom- 
miers is  not  essentially  different  from  Camembert  except 
that  some  brands  are  made  without  salting.  As  a  cheese 
eaten  unripe,  it  has  certain  advantages  over  the  other 
cheeses  with  the  flavor  of  sour  milk  only.  The  cottage 
and  (American)  Neufchatel  group  of  cheeses  comprises  the 
best  known  forms  with  the  acid  flavor.  These  cheeses  are 
very  perishable  in  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  Coulom- 
miers as  eaten  fresh  can  be  held  and  used  over  a  much 
longer  time  without  loss.  Coulommiers 1  in  this  sense 
is  simply  a  fresh  Camembert.  Such  a  cheese,  when  ready 
for  the  salting  process,  is  a  firm  sour  mass,  close  textured, 
almost  impervious  to  air  and  but  slowly  permeable  to 
liquids.  Spoilage  in  such  a  cheese  begins  only  on  the 

1  McNaughton,  J.,  Coulommier  cheese,  Dept.  Agr.  Ottawa, 
Canada,  Dairy  and  Cold  Storage  Ser.  Bui.  25,  1910. 


SOFT  CHEESES  RIPENED  BY  MOLD          133 

outside,  and  not  throughout  the  mass  as  in  cottage  cheese 
or  Neufchatel.  Successive  portions  of  such  a  cheese  can 
be  removed  daily  over  a  considerable  period  with  no 
loss  of  substance  aside  from  slight  scraping  at  times  and 
little  or  no  change  in  flavor.  This  product  has  very  tan- 
gible merit  for  manufacture  and  use  on  the  farm  in  many 
sections  of  America. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SOFT   CHEESES    RIPENED    BY   BACTERIA 

A  BACTERIALLY-RIPENED  series  of  cheeses  parallels  the 
mold-ripened  group  as  typified  by  Camembert.  Although 
the  varieties  overlap,  these  may  be  roughly  grouped  as : 
(1)  those  made  from  friable  or  soft  curd;  (2)  those  made 
from  firm  or  rubbery  curd.  In  the  first  group,  the  curd 
is  set  at  86°  F.,  or  below;  in  the  second,  the  rennet  is 
added  at  90°  F.  or  above.  In  the  first,  the  lower  tem- 
perature and  long  curdling  time  with  ripened  milk  gives  a 
soft  friable  curd  which  may  be  toughened  somewhat  by 
cutting  and  stirring  in  the  whey.  This  section  is  typified 
by  dTsigny,  American  Brie,  Liederkranz.  In  the  second, 
curdling  of  unripened  milk  at  temperatures  of  90°  F. 
or  above  insures  a  smooth  elastic  curd  which  fuses  more 
or  less  completely  into  the  firm  rubbery  "mass  typified 
by  freshly  made  Limburger. 

155.  The  Isigny  group.  —  A  series  of  names,  dTsigny, 
Brie,  Brie  dTsigny,  combined  with  trade  names,  are 
used  for  a  domestic  cheese,  made  in  a  small  number 
of  factories  distributed  over  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa  and  California. 
The  cheeses  sold  under  the  separate  varietal  names  differ 
only  in  diameter;  their  thickness  is  fairly  uniform;  the 
process  of  manufacture  and  ripening  with  resultant 
textures  and  flavors  furnishes  no  fundamental  varietal 

134 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     135 

characters,  although  the  products  of  the  several  factories 
show  noticeable  differences  in  market  quality.  D'Isigny, 
while  the  name  of  a  French  town  famous  for  butter 
production,  is  not  used  to  designate  a  cheese  in  France.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  accepted  as  a  French  name  arbitrarily 
applied  to  a  domestic  product.  Brie  as  used  in  France 
is  a  markedly  different  cheese  (p.  131),  and  the  name 
should  be  dropped  from  this  form  as  made  in  America. 
As  used  for  a  member  of  this  series  made  in  America,  it 
merely  means  cheese  7  to  15  inches  in  diameter.  The 
cheese  partakes  of  the  characters  of  French  Livarot,  and 
of  Pont  1'Eveque  without  exactly  reproducing  either  form. 
The  milk  varies  from  separator  skim  to  whole 
milk,  with  resultant  differences  in  quality.  Freedom 
from  gas  is  essential  to  the  best  results.  The  milk  is 
curdled  at  85°  to  86°  F.  with  sufficient  rennet  to  produce 
a  very  firm  curd  within  a  period  of  one  and  one-half 
hours.  Curd  is  then  cut  in  two  directions,  allowed  to 
stand  a  few  minutes  or  gently  agitated  to  produce  a  very 
slight  toughness  or  "  worked  "  condition,  then  scooped 
into  hoops  4^  to  5  inches  in  height  and  varying  in  diameter 
from  2j  to  15  inches  according  to  the  size  selected  for 
manufacture.  To  aid  in  the  escape  of  whey,  three  rows 
of  holes  -T2  inch  in  diameter  and  2  inches  apart  in  the 
row  are  made  in  each  hoop.  The  hoops  are  arranged 
upon  draining  tables  with  more  or  less  corrugated  surface, 
which  for  best  drainage  should  be  covered  with  matting. 
The  cheeses  are  allowed  to  drain  without  pressure.  They 
are  commonly  turned  the  second  morning,  although  they 
are  sometimes  solid  enough  to  turn  within  the  first  day. 
When  fully  drained,  the  cheeses  are  salted  by  rubbing 
coarse  salt  on  the  surface,  after  which  they  stand  an 
extra  day.  They  are  then  arranged  upon  shelves  in  a 


136  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

ripening  room  held  between  50°  and  60°  F.  with  humidity 
so  high  that  evaporation  is  kept  at  a  minimum.  In  this 
room,  a  surface  slime  develops  quickly.  This  consists 
of  bacteria  of  several  forms,  yeasts,  Oidium  lactis  and 
accidental  species  of  other  molds'.  During  this  ripening, 
the  cheeses  are  turned,  rubbed  with  the  hands,  washed 
with  salt  water  and  scraped  if  infected  with  molds  which 
produce  colored  colonies.  In  the  course  of  ripening,  the 
slimy  surface  layer  acquires  a  yellowish  orange  color 
with  the  strong  odor  and  taste  characteristic  of  the  series. 

Brands  of  d'Isigny  are  made  from  every  grade  between 
separator  skim  and  whole  milk.  They  reach  the  market 
in' condition  all  the  way  from  "Kosher"  forms1  which 
are  eaten  entirely  unripe,  to  brands  which  approximate 
the  qualities  of  Limburger  and  others  which  approach 
Port  du  Salut. 

The  biology  and  chemistry  of  the  ripening  of  this  type 
of  cheese  have  not  been  completely  followed.  An  initial 
souring  process  always  takes  place  quickly.  Oidium 
lactis  is  always  present  in  some  degree  on  the  surface, 
but  the  organisms  in  the  yellowish  to  orange  slime  on  the 
surface  of  the  cheese  appear  to  produce  the  characteristic 
odor  and  taste.  These  appear  to  be  due  to  the  develop- 
ment of  volatile  fatty  acids,  such  as  valerianic  and  ca- 
proic,  which  diffuse  throughout  the  cheese,  even  pene- 
trating the  unripened  sour  portions.  The  same  odor 
and  taste  in  varying  intensity  are  present  in  Limburger, 
Brick,  and  a  long  series  of  German  varieties  not  handled 
in  America. 

High-flavored  cheeses  such  as  these,  form  an  acceptable 
part  of  the  meal  in  cases  in  which  the  intensity  of  other 

1  Kosher  forms  are  prepared  in  compliance  with  the  Mosaic 
law  as  demanded  by  the  Jewish  trade. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     137 

flavors  is  such  as  to  mask  entirely  the  milder  flavors  of 
Camembert  or  cream  cheese. 

In  composition,  a  characteristic  whole-milk  brand 
of  this  group  showed  the  following  analysis : 1  water, 
45.5  per  cent;  fat,  25.28  per  cent;  protein,  18.22  per 
cent. 

156.  Raffine.2  —  This  cheese  is  made  in  the  French 
settlement  of  the  Isle  of  Orleans  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  The  practice  seems  to  have  been  brought  from 
France  and  represents  an  intermediate  product  between 
Camembert  and  perhaps  Livarot,  a  cheese  on  the  border- 
line between  Camembert  and  Isigny  as  made  in  America. 
The  outline  of  the  making  process  as  given  follows: 
Milk  freshly  drawn  is  curdled  without  cooling,  at  approxi- 
mately 90°  F.  The  rennet  is  prepared  on  the  farm. 
About  one-half  hour  is  required  for  curdling.  The  curd 
is  cut  into  2-inch  cubes.  Whey  is  removed  as  fast  as 
it  separates.  About  two  hours  are  required  for  draining. 
The  curd  then  goes  into  the  hoops.  The  metal  hoops, 
which  are  closed  at  one  end,  are  6  inches  high,  4|  inches 
in  diameter,  with  holes  about  rg-  inch  at  intervals  of  about 
J  inch,  and  stand  upon  three  legs  about  1  inch  in  height. 
When  filled,  the  cheeses  are  left  on  a  draining  table. 
Some  salt  is  put  on  top  while  draining.  When  the  volume 
is  reduced  to  one-half,  the  cheese  is  turned.  The  drain- 
ing room  is  kept  at  about  70°  F.  After  they  are  firm 
enough  to  handle,  drainage  is  completed  on  racks  covered 
with  rush  matting.  These  are  arranged  on  special  racks. 
The  cheeses  are  turned  twice  a  day,  and  washed  in  slightly 

1  Unpublished  analysis  of  the  -Stores  Exp.  Sta. 

2  Chapais,  J.  C.,  Monographic,  Le  Fromage  Raffine  de  L'Isle 
d'Orleans.     Quebec,   1911.     Published  by  Ministry  of  Agricul- 
ture, pages  1-31. 


138  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

salted  water  every  two  days.  After  each  washing,  they 
are  drained  for  two  hours  on  cloth,  and  placed  on  clean 
matting.  This  treatment  continues  about  fifteen  days. 

After  fifteen  days  on  the  matting,  the  cheeses  are  ready 
for  ripening.  They  are  first  covered  with  cold  brine 
and  let  stand  twenty-four  hours.  The  cheeses  are  packed 
in  rolls  or  tiers  in  boxes,  covered  with  cloth  and  ripened 
at  45°  F.  They  must  be  kept  moist ;  if  signs  of  drying 
appear,  moisture  must  be  added.  If  the  cheeses  develop 
yellow  slime,  they  are  washed  with  clear  water  and  rinsed 
in  water  with  salt  added.  After  a  ripening  period  of 
three  weeks,  the  cheeses  should  begin  to  be  soft  when 
pressed  with  the  finger.  The  growth  of  molds  must  be 
prevented  by  washing  the  boxes,  cloths,  and  washing 
and  scraping  the  cheeses  if  necessary.  When  the  cheeses 
are  ready  for  the  market,  they  are  scraped  clean  and 
white,  wrapped  separately  in  cheese-cloth  or  parchment 
paper  and  packed  into  the  boxes.  Ripe  cheeses  are 
about  5  inches  in  diameter,  1  inch  thick  and  weigh  a  little 
over  5  ounces. 

The  outline  of  the  Raffine  process  follows : 

coagulation  by  rennet 30  minutes 

cutting  and  draining  curd  ....  2  hours 

draining  in  hoops       . 10  hours 

stand  on  mats 15  days 

ripening  in  boxes 21  days 

Total  period 36  days 

The  treatment  described  closely  resembles  the  handling 
of  Livarot  cheese  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  France. 

157.  Liederkranz  cheese.  —  Among  the  specialties  in 
the  bacterial  group  is  Liederkranz,  made  from  curd  with 
the  soft  friable  texture  of  a  Camembert,  molded  in  rec- 


SOFT    CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     139 

tangular  blocks  of  about  4  ounces  in  weight  and  ripened 
very  completely.  Although  this  name  is  the  private 
brand  of  a  single  factory,  it  has  become  widely  known  with 
the  effect  of  creating  a  type  name  in  the  American  market. 
Analysis  of  this  brand  of  cheese  gives  about  55  per  cent 
water,  25  per  cent  fat,  17  per  cent  protein,  which  in- 
dicates a  whole  milk  cheese. 

158.  Limburger  cheese l  derives   its  name  from  the 
town  of  Limburg  in  Belgium.     The  manufacture  of  this 
cheese  is  now  widely  practiced  in  Europe  and  in  certain 
parts  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  New  York  and 
Wisconsin.     Practically   no   cheese   of   this   name   is   at 
present  imported,  and  the  practices  described  are  limited 
to  those  in  American  factories. 

159.  The  milk.  —  Limburger  cheese  is  probably  best 
known   on   account   of   its  pronounced   odor.      Because 
of  this  characteristic  pungent  smell,  it  is  often  thought 
that  the  cheese  is  made  in  dirty  or  unsanitary  places. 
On  the  contrary,  Limburger  cheese  is  usually  made  in 
small  factories  which  are  clean  and  sanitary.     Because 
of  the  constant  attention  required,  a  cheese-maker  can 
handle  only  about  2000-2500    pounds    of  milk    a  day, 
and  then  some  help  is  necessary  to  care  for  the  cheeses 
in  the  curing  room.2    The  discussion  of  the  milk  given 
in  Chapter  II  applies  to  that  to  be  made  into  Limburger 
cheese;    however,  Limburger  requires  sweeter  milk  than 
do  some  of  the  other  types.     To  be  sure  of   obtaining 
very  sweet  milk,  it  is  the  usual  practice  for  the  milk 
to  be  delivered  without   cooling   morning   and   evening 

1  The  authors  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Louis  Get- 
man  in  preparing  this  description. 

2  Zumkehr,  P.,  Limburger  cheesemaking,  Wis.  Cheese-makers 
Association,  15th  Annual  Meeting,  1907,  page  62. 


140 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


at  the  cheese  factory.  The  cheese  is  made  twice  a  day. 
Because  the  milk  must  be  delivered  twice  daily,  it  is 
obtained  from  only  a  few  producers  near  the  factory. 
A  factory  usually  does  not  have  more  than  eight  to  twelve 
patrons.  Because  of  the  small  number  of  patrons,  it 
is  comparatively  easy  to  obtain  a  supply  of  fresh  clean 
milk. 

The  factories  are  variously  built.     A  common  type 
takes  advantage  of  sloping  ground  so  that  the  floor  at 


FIG.  23.  —  A  common  type  of  Limburger  cheese  factory. 

one  end  may  be  on  the  ground  level  and  run  backward 
into  a  hillside  until  the  other  end  is  a  cellar  with  small 
windows  at  the  ceiling  opening  at  the  ground  level  (Fig. 
23).  The  family  of  the  cheese-maker  often  lives  in  the 
same  building  above  the  factory. 

160.  Making  the  cheese.  —  Limburger  cheese  is  made 
from  the  whole  milk.  When  the  milk  is  received  at  the 
factory,  it  is  placed  in  the  cheese  vat.  As  the  milk  is 
delivered  both  morning  and  evening  without  cooling, 
it  reaches  the  factory  at  a  temperature  of  90  to  96°  F. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     141 

In  some  cases  the  night's  and  morning's  milk  is  mixed 
and  then  warmed  to  about  94°  F.  This  practice  is  not 
recommended  but  is  frequently  adopted,  when  the  supply 
of  milk  becomes  too  small  to  work  in  two  lots.  As  soon 
as  all  of  the  milk  has  .been  delivered,  the  cheese-making 
process  begins.  No  starter  is  used.  The  milk  is  not 
ripened  because  no  acid  development  during  the  making 
process  is  desired.  >  The  milk  is  set  or  curdled  at  the 
temperature  at  which  it  is  received  at  the  factory,  usually 
from  90  to  96°  F.  Sufficient  rennet  extract  is  used  to  give 
a  firm  coagulation  in  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  This 
usually  requires  2j  to  3  ounces  of  rennet  extract  for 
each  1000  pounds  of  milk:  This  is  diluted  in  about 
forty  times  its  own  volume  of  cold  water  and  added  to 
the  milk.  (For  method  of  adding  rennet  extract  to  milk, 
see  Chapter  V.)  When  the  coagulum  has  become  firm 
so  that  it  will  split  clean  over  the  finger,  the  curd  is 
ready  to  cut.  Coarse  Cheddar  cheese  knives  are  used. 
Sometimes  only  the  perpendicular  knife  is  employed, 
and  the  curd  is  broken  up  while  being  stirred  with 
the  hands  and  rake.  This  usually  causes  a  large  fat 
loss.  After  cutting,  the  curd  is  stirred  first  by  hand 
and  later  with  an  ordinary  wooden  hay  rake.  Usually 
the  curd  is  not  "  cooked "  or  heated  after  setting, 
though  occasionally  it  is  brought  up  as  high  as  96°  F.  to 
98°  F.  If  the  curd  does  not  firm  up,  the  temperature 
may  be  raised  to  98°  to  100°  F.  to  aid  in  expelling  the 
moisture. 

When  ready  to  dip,  the  curd  should  still  be  in  large 
soft  shiny  pieces.  It  requires  from  one  hour  to  an  hour 
and  thirty  minutes  from  the  time  the  rennet  extract 
is  added  until  the  curd  is  ready  to  dip.  When,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  cheese-maker,  the  curd  has  become  suffi- 


142  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

ciently  firmed  in  the  whey,  the  whey  is  drawn  down  to 
the  surface  of  the  curd.  The  curd  is  then  dipped  into 
the  Limburger  molds.  These  molds  are  5  inches  square 
by  8  inches  deep  without  top  or  bottom.  Usually  there 
are  five  or  six  of  these  molds  built  together  into  a  section. 
These  molds  are  placed  on  a  draining  table  beside  the 
vat  and  the  curd  is  ladled  into  them  with  a  large  tin 
ladle.  The  draining  table  has  strips  on  both  sides  and 
one  end  and  slants  toward  the  other  end  so  that  the 
whey  will  drain  from  the  curd  and  yet  not  go  on  the 
floor  except  at  the  one  end.  This  makes  it  easy  to 
save  and  catch  the  whey  for  stock  feed. 

161.  Draining  and  salting  Limburger.  —  In  some  fac- 
tories, a  clean  piece  of  burlap  is  put  on  the  draining  table 
and  the  molds  and  curd  placed  on  the  burlap.  This  aids 
in  the  rapid  draining  of  the  whey  from  the  curd  and  pre- 
vents the  loss  of  curd  particles.  The  curd  should  be 
turned  frequently  in  the  mold  to  obtain  uniform  draining. 
The  molds  are  transferred  to  the  salting  room  as  soon  as 
well  drained,  usually  in  about  twelve  hours,  but  sometimes 
they  are  left  until  the  following  morning.  Here  they 
are  placed  on  another  draining  table,  which  has  strips 
about  5  inches  high  on  the  sides  and  one  end.  The 
cheeses  are  placed  along  this  board,  each  cheese  being 
separated  by  a  piece  of  board  4  inches  high  and  5  inches 
wide.  When  the  row  is  filled,  a  long  strip  the  length  of 
the  table  is  placed  against  the  row.  Another  row  is 
laid  down  against  this  strip  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
first,  and  so  on  until  several  rows  are  on  the  table. 
The  last  long  strip  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  sticks 
wedged  between  it  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  table. 
These  strips  and  pieces  form  a  mold  for  each  cheese  while 
draining.  Usually  the  cheeses  are  turned  several  times 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     143 

in  this  period  to  obtain  a  uniform  expulsion  of  whey. 
In  about  twenty-four  hours  the  cheeses  are  ready  to  be 
salted.  This  is  done  by  applying  the  salt  to  the  outside 
of  the  cheese.  The  edges  are  rolled  in  a  box  of  salt  and 
the  salt  then  rubbed  on  the  two  broad  surfaces.  Any 
excess  salt  is  brushed  from  the  cheese  with  the  hand. 
The  cheeses  are  then  laid  on  a  draining  table  in  single 
layers.  The  second  day,  they  are  salted  again  in  the 
same  way  and  piled  two  deep ;  they  are  salted  again  the 
third  day  and  piled  three  or  four  layers  deep.  The 
salting  room  or  cellar  should  have  a  temperature  of  60° 
F.  and  be  fairly  damp.  The  amount  of  salt  used  is 
very  important.  The  tendency  is  to  use  too  much  salt. 
This  retards  the  ripening  process  and  in  extreme  cases 
gives  the  cheese  a  salty  taste.  If  not  enough  salt  is 
used,  the  cheese  will  deteriorate  very  rapidly  on  ac- 
count of  the  development  of  undesirable  types  of  fer- 
mentation. The  cheeses  when  salted  are  then  placed  in 
the  curing  room,  which  is  a  cellar,  usually  beyond  the 
salting  room.  This  cellar  should  have  a  temperature  of 
58°  to  64°  F.  and  a  relative  humidity  of  95  per  cent  of 
saturation.  In  winter  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  fire  to  keep 
the  rooms  warm,  otherwise  the  cheese  would  cure  very 
slowly  or  not  at  all.  In  some  factories  the  curing  and 
salting  cellars  are  a  single  room. 

162.  Ripening  Limburger.  —  When  first  placed  in  the 
curing  cellar,  the  cheeses  are  put  on  edge  close  together, 
and  as  they  cure  are  gradually  separated.  While  in  the 
curing  cellar,  the  cheese  must  be  rubbed  frequently  by 
hand  and  washed,  usually  with  salt  water.  The  object 
of  the  rubbing  is  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  cheese  moist 
and  prevent  the  growth  of  molds.  The  drier  the  cheese 
and  the  more  mold,  the  oftener  the  cheeses  must  be 


144  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

rubbed.  The  drying  or  the  evaporation  from  the  cheese 
can  be  retarded  by  sprinkling  the  floor  of  the  cellar  with 
water.  When  first  placed  in  the  curing  cellar,  they  are 
usually  rubbed  daily;  after  a  few  days  they  are  rubbed 
every  other  day  and  finally  as  often  as  the  cheese-maker 
can  find  time  to  work  at  them.  The  more  the  cheeses 
are  rubbed,  the  better  the  rind. 

In  the  curing  of  Limburger  cheese,  protein  compounds 
are  attacked  by  the  micro-organisms.  Certain  highly- 
flavored  fatty  acids  are  commonly  produced.1  This 
change  works  most  rapidly  near  the  outside  and  more 
slowly  toward  the  center  of  the  cheese.  The  stage  of 
ripening  can  be  determined  by  examining  the  cheese. 
When  first  made,  a  cheese  is  harsh  and  hard  and  the 
outside  is  more  or  less  white :  as  the  curing  changes  take 
place,  the  cheese  becomes  soft  and  pasty  or  buttery. 
The  outside  color  changes  from  a  whitish  to  a  yellowish 
and  finally  even  a  reddish  brown.  It  requires  consider- 
able time  for  the  ripening  agents  to  work  from  the  outside 
to  the  center  of  the  cheese.  As  ripening  progresses, 
Limburger  cheeses  tend  to  become  soft  enough  to  break 
in  handling.  If  such  cheeses  are  wrapped  in  manila 
paper  after  three  to  four  weeks  of  ripening  and  packed 
in  boxes,  losses  from  handling  are  eliminated.  One 
loose  board  is  left  on  each  box  and  the  boxes  remain  in 
the  ripening  cellar  until  the  cheese-maker  decides  by 
removal  and  examination  of  cheeses  from  time  to  time 
that  they  are  ready  for  shipment.  When  fully  ripe, 
the  cheese  spoils  very  quickly.  Unless  handled  very 
carefully,  the  outer  part  may  actually  rot  before  the 
interior  is  fully  ripe.  The  cheeses  are  shipped  from  the 

1  Currie,  J.  N.,  Flavor  of  Roquefort  cheese,  Jour.  Agr.  Re- 
search 2  (1914),  no.  1,  pages  1-14. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     145 

factory  when  they  are  eight  to  ten  weeks  old.  They  are 
then  placed  in  cold  storage,  which  checks  the  action  of 
the  ripening  agents  and  so  lengthens  the  commercial  life 
of  the  cheese. 

163.  Marketing  and  qualities  of  Limburger.  — •  As 
shipped  from  the  factory,  each  cheese  is  wrapped  in 
heavy  manila  paper  and  frequently  also  in  tin -foil.  The 
cheeses  are  packed  in  boxes  which  hold  forty-eight. 
Each  cheese  weighs  about  two  pounds. 

Limburger  cheese  should  be  regular  in  shape.  The 
rind  should  not  be  cracked  or  broken  nor  the  sides  bulged, 
nor  should  it  be  lopsided.  It  should  have  the  pronounced 
characteristic  flavor,  without  other  objectionable  flavors 
due  to  undesirable  fermentations.  The  body  should  be 
uniform  throughout.  It  is  common  to  find  cheeses  that 
have  not  a  uniform  body,  due  to  lack  of  curing ;  a  small 
part  of  the  interior  at  the  center  will  be  hard  and  not 
cured,  while  the  remainder  of  the  cheese  will  be  soft  and 
buttery.  The  color  should  be  uniform.  When  not  en- 
tirely cured,  the  uncured  part  at  the  center  is  usually  of 
a  lighter  color. 

The  cheese  should  contain  the  proper  amount  of 
salt.  The  most  common  defect  is  in  the  flavor.  If  the 
milk  is  not  free  from  bad  odors  and  flavors,  these  are 
apt  to  be  more  pronounced  in  the  cheese  than  in  the  milk. 
.(For  care  of  milk  see  Chapter  II.)  Gas-forming  fer- 
mentations are  very  bad  in  this  variety  of  cheese  as  they 
cannot  be  controlled  and  give  the  cheese  a  bad  flavor 
and  a  "  gassy  body."  When  a  cheese  is  gassy,  the  sides 
are  most  liable  to  be  bulged  and  the  body  is  full  of  gas 
holes  or  pockets.  Another  defect  is  a  sour  cheese.  This 
is  caused  by  the  development  of  too  much  acid  in  the 
milk  or  during  the  manufacturing  process.  A  sour 


146  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

cheese  usually  cures  slowly  and  has  a  pronounced  sour 
taste.     The  body  is  hard  and  bitter. 

If  the  cheese  contains  too  much  moisture,  it  will  cure 
rapidly  and  the  body  will  be  very  soft  and  pasty.  In 
extreme  cases  it  will  be  so  soft  that  it  will  run  when  the 
rind  is  broken.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  cheese  does  not 
contain  sufficient  moisture,  it  will  cure  very  slowly  and 
the  body  will  be  hard  and  dry  and  sometimes  crumbly. 
There  is  no  standard  score-card  for  judging  Limburger 
cheese.  The  Wisconsin  Cheese-makers  Association l 
uses  the  following  score -card  for  Limburger : 

Flavor 40 

Texture 40 

Color 10 

Salt 5 

Style __5   . 

Total  100 

164.  Yield  and  composition  of  Limburger.  —  The  yield 
of  cheese  depends  on :  (1)  the  amount  of  fat  and  other 
solids  in  the  milk  from  which  it  is  made ;  (2)  the  amount 
of  moisture  incorporated  into  cheese;  (3)  the  loss  of 
solids  during  the  manufacturing  process. 

The  yield  varies  from  12  to  14  pounds  of  cheese  from 
100  pounds  of  milk.  The  more  fat  and  other  solids  in 
the  milk,  the  more  cheese  can  be  made  from  100  pounds- 
of  the  milk.  The  more  moisture  incorporated  into  the 
cheese,  the  larger  the  yield.  The  quality  of  the  cheese 
and  the  amount  of  solids  determine  the  amount  of  mois- 
ture that  can  be  incorporated  into  the  cheese.  The 
greater  the  losses  during  the  manufacturing  process,  the 

1  Wis.  Cheese-makers  Assoc.,  12th  Annual  Meeting  and  Report, 
1906,  page  xxviii. 


SOFT   CHEESES   RIPENED   BY   BACTERIA     147 

less  is  the  yield.  The  composition  of  Limburger  cheese 
is  affected  by  the  same  factors  as  the  yield.  The  average 
cheese  probably  carries  from  40  to  42  per  cent  of  moisture. 
Limburger  cheeses  will  vary  in  composition  from  this 
analysis  about  as  follows  :  water  38  to  44  per  cent,  protein 
21  to  25  per  cent,  fat  25  to  30  per  cent.  The  differences 
in  practice  in  factory  groups  are  considerable.  Certain 
markets  call  for  more  solid  brands,  others  for  the  very  soft 
forms. 

165.  Munster  cheese  originated  in  Germany  near 
the  city  whose  name  it  bears.  There  is  a  limited  de- 
mand for  this  variety  in  America;  therefore  it  is  not 
extensively  made.  It  is  usually  manufactured  from 
whole  milk  in  a  Limburger  or  Brick  cheese  factory. 
The  process  of  manufacture  is  between  that  of  these  two 
varieties  in  temperatures  used,  firmness  of  curd  and  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  curd  and  cheese.  The  process  is  prob- 
ably more  like  that  of  Limburger.  The  curd  is  firmed 
more  in  the  whey  than  for  Limburger,  and  more  acid  is 
developed.  The  cheeses  are  pressed  or  drained  in  round 
forms  7  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  high.  The  hoops 
are  lined  with  cloth  to  prevent  the  loss  of  curd  particles 
while  draining.  When  the  cheeses  are  sufficiently  drained, 
until  they  are  firm  enough  to  hold  their  shape,  the  cloths 
are  removed.  The  cheese  is  salted  by  rubbing  dry  salt 
on  the  surface  or  soaking  the  cheese  in  brine.  The  prod- 
uct is  handled  in  the  curing  room  very  much  the  same 
as  Limburger  or  Brick  cheese.  When  sufficiently  ripe, 
each  cheese  is  wrapped  in  parchment  paper  and  placed 
in  a  separate  wooden  box.  This  cheese,  when  cured,  has 
a  characteristic  flavor  which  is  between  that  of  Limburger 
and  Brick.  The  body  is  more  or  less  open.  The  essential 
factor  in  the  manufacture  of  Munster  cheese  is  clean 


148  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

milk.  Bad  fermentations,  such  as  produce  gas  and  bad 
flavors,  seriously  interfere  with  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  the  product.  The  cheese  is  usually  made  in  the 
late  fall  and  winter,  when  it  is  difficult  to  manufacture 
Limburger. 


CHAPTER  X 
SEMI-HARD  CHEESES 

BETWEEN  the  quickly  perishable  soft  cheeses  and  the 
typical  hard  group,  are  two  series  of  varieties,  one 
ripened  by  green  mold  and  best  known  by  Roquefort, 
the  other  ripened  by  bacteria  and  typified  by  Brick 
cheese.  These  cheeses  are  fairly  firm,  hold  their  shape 
well,  ripen  over  a  period  varying  from  a  few  weeks  to 
several  months  and  their  marketable  period  is  com- 
paratively long.  In  texture  they  are  intermediate  be- 
tween the  conditions  known  as  "  soft "  and  "  hard." 
In  water-content,  they  range  at  their  best  from  37  to 
45  per  cent.  Outside  these  limits,  the  cheeses  are  often 
marketable  but  they  lose  in  quality  l  and  trueness  to  type. 

166.  The  green  mold  group.  —  There  are  three  well- 
known  semi-hard  cheeses  ripened  by  green  or  blue-green 
mold.2  The  mold  is  an  incidental  factor  in  certain  other 
forms  but  none  of  these  forms  has  won  larger  than  local 
or  purely  national  recognition.  French  Roquefort,  on  the 
contrary,  is  probably  the  most  widely  known  of  all  cheeses. 
Stilton,  to  a  small  degree  at  least,  has  followed  the  English 
to  the  many  lands  they  inhabit.  Gorgonzola,  although 

1  Currie,  J.  N.,  The  relation  of  composition  to  quality  in 
cheese,  American  Food  Jour.  11  (1916),  no.  9,  page  458.     See  also 
Dox  on   the   True   Composition   of   Roquefort   Cheese,   Ztsch. 
Untersuch.  Nahr.  u.  Genussmtl.  22  (1911),  pages  239-242. 

2  Thorn,  C.,  and  Matheson,  K.  J.,  Biology  of  Roquefort  cheese, 
Storrs  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  79,  pages  335-347,  1914. 

149 


150  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

made  in  Italy  alone,  has  a  large  market  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  in  America.  In  the  manipulations  of  manu- 
facture, these  forms  are  not  closely  related  but  they  re- 
semble each  other  in  that  each  becomes  streaked  or 
marbled  by  the  growth  of  green  mold  (Penicillium  Roque- 
forti)  through  open  spaces  within  the  cheese.  The 
"  blue-veined  "  or  marbled  cheeses  have  a  characteristic 
taste  which  is  developed  in  its  most  typical  form  in 
Roquefort. 

167.  Roquefort  cheese.  —  This  is  a  rennet  cheese 
made  from  sheep's  milk  (with  occasional  and  minor 
admixture  of  goat's  and  cow's  milk)  in  the  section  of 
southern  France  centering  about  Roquefort  in  Aveyron. 
The  practices  are  standardized  and  controlled  by  a  few 
companies,  thus  reaching  exceptional  uniformity.  Roque- 
fort is  uncolored,  open,  made  from  firm  but  brittle  or 
crumbly,  not  tough  or  waxy  curd.  Each  cheese  is  about 
7J  inches  (20  cm.)  in  diameter  and  3J  inches  (9  cm.)  in 
thickness  without  a  definite  rind,  and  when  ripe  enough 
for  market  is  scraped  carefully,  closely  covered  with 
tin-foil  and  kept  in  refrigerators.  The  cut  cheese  shows 
extensive  open  spaces  which  are  lined  with  green  mold. 
This  cheese,  in  addition  to  a  strong  cheesy  odor  and  taste, 
has  a  peppery  or  burning  quality  which  according  to 
Currie 1  is  due  to  the  formation  of  volatile  fatty  acids 
such  as  caproic,  caprylic  and  capric  from  the  butter -fat 
of  the  sheep's  milk  used.  A  series  for  Roquefort  cheeses 
selected  for  excellent  quality  was  found  by  Dox  2  to  show 
the  following  composition : 

1  Currie,  J.  N.,  Flavor  of  Roquefort  cheese,  Jour.  Agr.  Re- 
search, 2  (1914),  1,  pages  1-14,  Washington. 

2  Dox,  A.  W.,  Die  Zusammensetzung  des  echten  Roquefort- 
Kases,  in  Ztschr.  Untersuch.  Nahr.  u.  Genussmtl.  Bd.  22,  Heft. 
4,  pages  239-242,  1911. 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES 


151 


TABLE    IV 
COMPOSITION  OF  ROQUEFORT  CHEESE 


WATER 
PER 
CENT 

FAT 
PER 
CENT 

PROTEIN 
PER 
CENT 

ASH 
PER 

CENT 

SALT 
PER 
CENT 

Average  .... 
Minimum  .  .  . 

38.69 
37.49 

32.31 
31.50 

21.39 

19.14 

6.14 
5.18 

4.14 
3.64 

Maximum  .  .  . 

40.10 

33.53 

23.06 

6.81 

4.88 

The  composition  of  the  sheep's  milk  of  the  Roquefort 
producing  region  is  reported  by  Marre :  1 

TABLE   V 
COMPOSITION  OF  SHEEP'S  MILK 


WATER 
PER 
CENT 

CASEIN 
PER 
CENT 

FAT 
PER 
CENT 

LACTOSE 
PER 
CENT 

ASH 
PER 

CENT 

Range       .... 
Average   .... 

76-83 
79.5 

5-8 
6.5 

5.5-10.5 
8.0 

4  to  5 
4.5 

0.8-1.2 
1.0 

The  cheeses  when  properly  made  in  the  local  factories 
are  transported  to  Roquefort  for  ripening  in  the  famous 
caves  which  have  made  possible  the  development  of  a 
great  industry. 

The  Roquefort  caves  were  originally  natural  openings 
leading  back  into  the  face  of  a  cliff  until  they  reached  a 
deep,  narrow  fault  or  crack  in  the  rock  leading  to  the 
plains  above.  The  cooler  air  from  the  plains  came  down 
this  crack  over  moist  and  dripping  rocks  and  issued 
through  these  clefts  in  a  cold  moisture-laden  current 
which  kept  the  caves  about  50  to  55°  F.  and  moist  enough 
to  ripen  the  cheeses  without  shrinkage.  As  the  business 

1  Marre,  E.,  Le  Roquefort,  Rodez,  1906.  This  is  the  authorita- 
tive monograph  on  Roquefort  cheese  problems. 


152  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

outgrew  the  natural  caves,  great  cellars,  some  of  them 
five  or  six  floors  deep,  were  excavated  and  tunnels  were 
dug  back  to  the  crack  so  that  the  strong  ventilating 
current  reaches  every  part  of  the  cellars  and  keeps  both 
temperature  and  relative  humidity  favorable  to  the 
ripening  of  the  cheeses. 

168.  Cow's  milk  or  Facons  Roquefort.  —  The  supply 
of  Roquefort  is  automatically  limited  by  the  supply  of 
sheep's  milk.  The  sheep  gives  milk  only  about  five 
months  in  the  year  and  at  best  a  scant  average  of  about 
a  pint  a  day  to  a  sheep.  Sheep's  milk  for  cheese-making 
is  not  produced,  therefore,  outside  of  very  limited  regions. 
Some  cow's  and  goat's  milk  unavoidably  finds  its  way 
regularly  into  the  industry  itself.  Attempts  were  nat- 
urally made  to  substitute  cow's  milk.  Outside  the  con- 
trolled area,  factories  were  established  for  this  purpose. 
The  quality  of  the  product  did  not  equal  that  of  the 
Roquefort  factories,  and  French  courts  decreed  that  the 
name  Roquefort  should  not  be  used  for  such  products. 
Although  some  local  success  was  obtained,  not  much  prog- 
ress was  made  against  the  intrenched  Roquefort  industry. 
Similar  attempts  to  make  such  a  product  in  Germany 1 
were  tried  on  an  extensive  scale  but  failed.  More  re- 
cently, under  the  inspiration  of  Conn,  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Storrs  Experiment 
Station  have  studied  the  possibilities  of  such  an  industry. 
Although  the  work  is  not  completed,  the  preliminary 
reports 2  have  indicated  the  fundamental  principles 
which  must  underlie  such  development. 

1  Reported  on  the  word  of  Prof.  Fleischmann. 

2  Thorn,  C.,  J.  N.  Currie  and  K.  J.  Matheson,  Studies  relating 
to  the  Roquefort  and  Camembert  types  of  cheese,  Storrs  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  79,  pages  335-394,  1914. 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  '      153 

169.  Outline  of  making  Roquefort.  —  Some  of  the 
results  of  these  experiments  are  summarized  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs : 

Milk.  —  Clean-flavored  fresh  milk  testing  4-4.2  per 
cent  fat  and  up  to  2.8  percent  casein  gives  the  best  results. 
The  milk  with  a  high  percentage  of  cheese-making  solids 
forms  a  firmer  curd,  hence  works  up  better  in  the  process 
than  milk  of  lower  quality. 

Acidity.  — The  milk  is  ripened  by  lactic  starter  up  to 
an  acidity  of  0.23  per  cent  titrated  as  lactic  acid  at  the 
time  rennet  is  added.  This  gives  a  firm  curd,  which 
drains  to  the  desired  water-content  but  is  low  enough 
to  prevent  the  toughening  effect  of  too  high  acid.  A 
very  slight  increase  in  initial  acid  —  1  to  2  hundredths 
per  cent  —  combined  with  the  rate  at  which  acidity  is 
developing  introduces  such  physical  changes  in  texture 
as  to  make  the  final  texture  of  Roquefort  impossible. 

Temperature.  —  Rennet  is  added  at  or  below  84°  F. 
Every  degree  of  heat  adds  definitely  to  the  efficiency  of 
rennet.  Below  82°  F.,  curdling  becomes  slower  and  the 
coagulum  softer  and  more  difficult  to  drain.  The  sheep's 
milk  curd  is  made  from  76°  to  84°  F.  but  sheep's  milk 
has  about  twice  the  cheese  solids  found  in  cow's  milk. 
It  was  found  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  as  high 
as  texture  would  permit.  However,  at  86°  F.  the  physical 
character  of  the  curd  tends  to  become  tough  or  waxy 
in  handling.  At  84°  F.  the  curd  remains  brittle  and 
crumbly.  It  was,  therefore,  necessary  to  keep  the  cur- 
dling temperature  down  to  84°  F. 

Renneting  or  setting.  —  Rennet  at  a  rate  of  3  to  4 
ounces  of  standard  liquid  rennet  to  1000  pounds  (10  to  12 
c.c.  to  100  pounds)  was  found  to  give  the  best  curd 
under  experimental  conditions. 


154      '  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Curdling  time.  —  One  and  one-half  to  two  hours  gave 
most  satisfactory  results  in  forming  curd.  This  should 
be  very  firm  and  stand  until  it  begins  to  "  sweat/'  until 
beads  of  whey  have  begun  to  collect  upon  its  surface. 

Cutting.  —  The  cow's  milk  curd  gave  best  results  when 
cut  in  two  directions  with  the  half-inch  curd  knife.  The 
resulting  columns,  a  half  inch  square  in  cross-section, 
may  be  handled  without  excessive  losses. 

Draining.  —  The  cut  curd  is  dipped  to  a  draining  rack 
covered  with  cloth  with  as  little  breaking  as  possible. 
During  the  draining  process,  a  certain  amount  of  turning 
is  necessary  to  facilitate  the  separation  and  escape  of 
the  whey.  If  handled  too  much,  losses  of  fat  are  in- 
creased and  the  curd  becomes  tough  or  waxy  instead  of 
remaining  brittle  or  crumbly.  When  properly  handled, 
not  over  0.35  per  cent  of  fat  is  lost.  Under  favorable 
conditions,  four-ninths  to  two-thirds  of  the  original  weight 
of  curd  will  separate  and  run  off  as  whey  in  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes.  The  curd  meanwhile  is  exposed  to  the 
air  of  the  room  and  cools  toward  room  temperature.  If 
cooling  goes  too  far,  further  drainage  is  interfered  with. 
Hence  the  curd  is  put  into  the  hoop  and  the  drainage 
completed  while  the  cheese  is  reaching  its  final  form. 

Hoop.  —  Hoops  for  cow's  milk  Roquefort  must  be 
7  J  inches  in  diameter  and  about  5f  inches  high  to  hold 
curd  enough  to  produce  a  cheese  the  size  of  the  standard 
Roquefort  when  completely  drained.  Sheep's  milk  with 
its  higher  percentage  of  solids  does  not  require  such 
high  hoops.  The  curd  as  it  goes  into  the  hoop  should 
be  a  soft,  pulpy  mass  with  no  suggestion  of  toughness. 

Inoculation  with  mold.  —  The  mold  for  Roquefort 
cheese  (Penicillium  Roqueforti  1)  is  readily  grown  in  pure 

1  Thorn,  C.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  82,  1905. 


SEMI- HARD   CHEESES  155 

culture  in  ordinary  loaves  of  bread.  For  this  purpose 
loaves  hot  from  the  oven  are  quickly  drenched  with  or 
immersed  in  hot  paraffine  to  form  an  impervious  crust 
to  retain  moisture  as  well  as  to  keep  out  contaminations. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool.  The  interior  of  each  loaf  is 
inoculated  by  drawing  a  suspension  of  P.  Roqueforti 
spores  in  water  into  a  sterile  pipette  (10  c.c.)  which  is 
then  thrust  through  the  paraffined  crust  to  the  center  of 
the  loaf  of  bread  and  allowed  to  empty  there.  The  hole 
is  sealed  up  with  paraffine.  These  loaves  are  incubated 
for  about  a  month  at  room  temperature.  When  cut, 
every  open  space  should  be  found  lined  with  the  green 
spores  of  the  mold.  When  dry  enough,  the  mass  may  be 
powdered,  and  put  into  an  ordinary  pepper  box.  When 
the  curd  is  ready  to  go  into  the  hoop,  this  mold  powder 
is  sprinkled  upon  it  from  the  pepper  box. 

Handling.  —  Freshly  made  cheeses  are  turned  within 
the  first  hour  to  insure  the  proper  smoothness  of  both 
sides.  Further  draining  is  best  accomplished  in  a  room 
at  about  64°  F.  with  a  relative  humidity  of  85  to  90  per 
cent.  If  the  surface  of  the  cheese  becomes  too  dry,  a  rind 
is  formed.  No  real  rind  is  permitted  on  Roquefort. 
If  the  temperature  is  too  high,  slime  forms  quickly  and 
unfavorable  fermentation  may  occur.  Slime  (bacteria  and 
Oidium  lactis  usually)  must  be  scraped  when  it  becomes 
too  heavy. 

Salting. 1  —  Experimental  cheeses  were  found  to  give 
the  best  results  when  at  the  end  of  about  three  days' 
drainage  they  contained  about  50  per  cent  water.  Such 
cheeses  were  salted  by  sprinkling  the  entire  surface 
lightly,  replaced  upon  the  drain  boards  for  one  day, 

1  Thorn,  C.,  The  salt  factor  in  the  mold  ripened  cheeses, 
Storrs  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  79,  pages  387-394,  1914. 


156  THE   BOOK' OF   CHEESE 

salted  again  and  piled  in  two's.  After  another  day  they 
received  the  third  salting  and  were  piled  in  three's  for 
two  days  longer.  A  total  of  about  10  per  cent  by  weight 
of  salt  was  used  to  secure  an  absorption  of  4  per  cent. 
At  the  same  time  the  water-content  dropped  to  40  to 
43  per  cent.  After  salting  is  completed,  the  cheeses 
are  brushed  and  punched  with  holes  to  permit  oxygen 
to  enter.1  They  are  then  ready  for  ripening. 

170.  Ripening  of  Roquefort.  —  The  ripening  of  ex- 
perimental Roquefort  has  required  four  to  six  months 
at  a  relative  humidity  of  85  to  90  per  cent.  This  relative 
humidity  is  just  below  the  equilibrium  relative  humidity 
of  the  cheese,  hence  permits  a  shrinkage  of  2  to  4  per 
cent  in  the  water-content  of  the  cheese.  This  makes  it 
possible  to  control  the  amount  of  surface  slime  developed. 

If  the  relative  humidity  goes  too  high,  the  surface  slime 
of  bacteria  and  yeasts  becomes  very  heavy,  soft  and 
almost  liquid,  and  follows  the  openings  into  the  cheese 
with  resultant  damage  to  appearance  and  flavor.  Even 
under  the  conditions  at  Roquefort,  this  slime  must  be 
removed  by  rubbing  or  scraping  several  times  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  cheeses,  together  with  the  production  of 
bad  odor  and  taste.  If  the  humidity  becomes  too  low, 
the  surface  becomes  dry,  hard  and  cracks  open,  the 
friable  crumbly  texture  is  injured,  and  there  is  consider- 
able loss  in  weight.  Salt  forms  about  4  per  cent  of  the 
cheese.  This  is  in  solution  in  the  water  present,  which 
is  about  40  per  cent,  and  makes  a  brine  of  about  10  per 
cent  strength.  This  strength  of  brine  does  not  prevent 
the  growth  of  the  Roquefort  mold  (Penicillium  Roqueforti) 
but  does  hinder  the  development  of  Oidium  lactis  in  the 

1  Thorn,  C.,  and  Currie,  J.  N.,  The  dominance  of  Roquefort 
mold  in  cheese,  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  15  (1913),  no.  2,  pages  247-258. 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  157 

open  spaces  within  the  cheese.  Accurate  adjustment  of 
temperature  and  relative  humidity  in  the  ripening  rooms 
to  salt  and  water-content  in  the  cheese  is  essential  to 
proper  ripening.  These  conditions  are  furnished  by  the 
unique  natural  conditions  of  the  caves  of  Roquefort. 
The  production  of  such  cheeses  elsewhere  depends  either 
on  the  discovery  of  another  locality  with  closely  similar 
conditions  or  on  the  artificial  production  and  control  of 
the  necessary  temperature  and  relative  humidity.  This 
has  been  done  on  an  experimental  basis  by  the  use  of 
cold  storage  apparatus  combined  with  proper  humidifiers. 

The  differences  between  working  with  sheep's  and 
with  cow's  milk  lie  in  the  making  process  rather  than  in 
the  ripening.  Sheep's  milk  freshly  drawn  shows  a  higher 
acidity  than  cow's  milk,  probably  on  account  of  the  acid 
reaction  of  its  greater  casein  content.  With  nearly 
double  the  total  solids  of  cow's  milk,  the  yield  to  one 
hundred  pounds  is  much  greater,  consequently  the  drain- 
age of  the  curd  is  much  more  easily  handled. 

Once  made  and  salted,  the  cheeses  require  very  nearly 
the  same  conditions  of  ripening.  The  resultant  products 
are  alike  in  appearance  and  texture.  In  flavor,  cow's 
milk  Roquefort  differs  in  character  from  sheep's  milk 
cheese  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  recognized  by  taste. 
The  difference  was  found  by  Currie  l  to  be  due  to  an  actual 
difference  in  the  combination  of  fatty  acids  present. 

Although  these  differences  in  character  are  recognizable 
by  the  expert  in  testing  the  cheese,  as  well  as  by  chemical 
analysis,  cow's  milk  Roquefort  would  satisfy  that  large 
proportion  of  consumers  who  use  such  cheese  only  in 
connection  with  other  fairly  high  flavored  foods.  The 

1  Currie,  J.  N.,  The  composition  of  Roquefort  cheese  fat, 
Jour.  Agr.  Research,  2  (1914),  6,  pages  429-434. 


158  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

demands  for  technical  skill  and  factory  equipment  are 
not  naturally  greater  than  for  many  other  lines  of  cheese- 
making.  The  gradual  development  of  a  cow's  milk 
Roquefort  may  be  anticipated. 

171.  Gorgonzola *  is  a  rennet  cheese  made  from  fresh 
whole  cow's  milk,  in  northern  Italy.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  village  of  Gorgonzola,  a  few  miles  from 
Milan,  but  the  manufacture  of  the  cheese  has  spread 


FIG.  24.  —  Gorgonzola  ripening  establishment  in  valley  near  Lecco. 

over  a  wide  area.  The  cheeses  are  made  on  farms  and 
in  factories  from  which  they  are  transported  for  ripening 
to  cool  valleys  of  the  Alps,  principally  near  Lecco  (Fig.  24). 
Boeggild  introduced  the  making  of  a  cheese  after  the 
Gorgonzola  process  into  Denmark  about  1885.  This 
industry  has  been  successful  on  a  small  scale  since  that 
time.  Gorgonzola  cheeses  are  about  30  cm.  (12  inches) 
in  diameter  and  18  cm.  (7  inches)  thick  and  weigh  15 
to  20  pounds.  As  exported  they  are  usually  heavily 

1  Thorn,  C.,  Soft  cheese  studies  in  Europe,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Bur.  An.  Ind.  Kept.  22,  pages  79-109,  1905. 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  159 

coated  l  with  a  mixture  usually  barite,  tallow  and  lard 
colored  with  annatto  or  other  cheese  color.  This  coating 
prevents  shrinkage  or  mold  on  the  surface  of  the  cheese  in 
transit.  When  cut  these  cheeses  vary  greatly.  All  show 
marbling  with  mold  (Roquefort  mold).  During  their 
ripening  they  become  very  slimy  at  the  surface.  To 
open  up  air  spaces  for  mold  growth,  this  slime  is  scraped 
off  and  holes  are  punched  into  the  cheeses.  These  holes 
are  readily  seen  in  the  final  product.  Some  show  crumbly 
texture,  well  distributed  mold,  as  in  Roquefort,  with 
flavor  approaching  that  cheese;  in  others  .the  texture 
is  waxy  rather  than  crumbly,  a  condition  correlated 
regularly  with  different  character  in  the  flavor.  Fre- 
quently in  whole  areas  or  in  small  pockets,  slime  consist- 
ing of  bacteria  and  Oidium  has  followed  the  openings 
into  the  cheese  and  affects  its  odor  and  taste. 

Experimental  Gorgonzola  cheeses  comparable  with 
the  Italian  product  were  made  with  cow's  milk  ripened 
as  for  Roquefort  or  higher,  to  0.25-0.30  per  cent  (titrated 
as  lactic  acid),  curdled  at  86°  F.  (30°  C.),  cut  into  cubes 
and  slightly  stirred,  then  dipped  to  a  draining  board  for 
about  one-half  hour,  and  put  into  the  hoop.  The  cheeses 
drained  quickly  to  about  50  per  cent  water  and  developed 
a  surface  rind  as  in  the  harder  cheeses.  Cut  surfaces 
showed  a  fairly  open  cheese  in  which  mold  grew  readily. 
These  cheeses  were  salted  to  taste,  not  to  a  specified 
percentage.  They  ripened  with  the  same  irregular 
results  and  the  characteristic  range  of  flavors  found  in 
Gorgonzola.  To  avoid  the  rotting  of  the  cheese  by  sur- 

1  Frestadius,  A.,  Nord.  Mejeri  Tid.  17  (1912),  14,  page  159, 
Abs.  N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  34  (1912),  2,  page  54,  and  Cutting, 
W.  B.,  The  use  of  baritine  in  cheese  rinds,  Mo.  Commerce  and 
Trade  Repts.  1908,  337,  page  144,  also  in  Practical  Dairyman,  2 
(1908),  7,  page  76. 


160  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

face  growths,  they  were  exposed  to  low  humidities  for  a 
time  and  cracks  opened  at  the  surfaces,  as  seen  in  the 
ripening  rooms  at  Lecco  (Fig.  24).  The  texture  was 
more  or  less  waxy  or  tough,  which  was  correlated  with 
the  slightly  higher  heat  at  renneting  together  with  the 
stirring  or  "  working  "  of  the  curd.  Comparative  an- 
alyses of  a  series  of  imported  cheeses  confirm  the  inter- 
pretation that  the  salt-content  of  Roquefort,  4  per  cent 


FIG.  25.  —  Gorgonzola  cheese  curing-room. 

approximately,  prevents  the  invasion  of  the  interior  of 
the  cheese  by  Oidium.  No  complete  study  of  the  ripen- 
ing of  Gorgonzola  -has  been  made.  As  far  as  followed, 
it  consists  in  an  initial  souring  process  followed  by  ripen- 
ing by  molds  and  slime  organisms.  At  its  best,  Gorgon- 
zola is  nearly  equal  to  Roquefort  but  the  percentage  of 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  161 

such  quality  is  low.  In  spite  of  its  irregular  quality, 
England  has  used  larger  amounts  of  Gorgonzola  than  of 
Roquefort.  Considerable  quantities  have  been  imported 
for  the  Italian  trade  in  the  United  States. 

172.  Stilton  cheese  bears  the  name  of  an  English 
village  1  in  which  it  was  first  sold.  It  is  made  from  cow's 
milk  and  is  typically  a  whole  milk  cheese,  although  part 
skim  cheeses  are  regularly  made  and  sold  as  lower  grades. 
In  the  Stilton-making  counties,  the  milk  from  Shorthorn 
cattle  testing  about  3.5  to  4.0  per  cent  fat  is  preferred 
to  richer  or  poorer  grades.  Such  milk  is  curdled  with 
rennet  at  about  86°  F.  in  about  one  hour;  the  curd  is 
cut,  dipped  to  a  draining  table  covered  with  cloth  and 
drained  slowly  over  a  period  of  several  hours,  commonly 
overnight.  During  this  period  considerable  acidity  is 
developed.  The  curd  is  then  milled  or  broken  by  hand, 
salted,  packed  into  hoops  15  to  16  inches  high  and  7 
inches  in  diameter.  These  hoops  are  made  from  heavy 
tin  (Fig.  26)  with  four  rows  of  holes  about  T$  inch  in 
diameter.  The  freshly  filled  hoops  are  allowed  to 
stand  and  drain  without  pressure  in  a  room  at  about 
70°  F.  (Fig.  26).  Such  cheeses  are  turned  every  day 
for  several  days.  When  solid  enough  to  stand  the  hoops 
are  removed,  the  cheeses  are  scraped  or  rubbed  with  a 
knife  until  the  surface  is  smooth,  and  commonly  wrapped 
with  a  cloth  bandage  to  maintain  the  shape,  if  the 
cheese  is  still  too  soft  to  stand  firmly.  In  the  factories, 
several  rooms  are  used  with  varying  temperature  and 
relative  humidities,  which  makes  it  possible  to  place  each 

1  Stilton  Cheese  —  J.  P.  Sheldon  —  from  abs.  by  New  York 
Produce  Rev.  28  (June  16,  1909),  no.  8,  pages  362-363.  Stilton  is 
said  to  have  originated  with  Mrs.  Paulet,  Wymondham,  Co.  of 
Leicester,  and  to  have  been  sold  by  her  brother  —  Host  of  the 
"Bill"  at  Stilton  from  which  village  it  derived  its  name. 


162 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


cheese  under  the  condition  best  suited  to  its  texture  and 
condition  of  ripeness.  In  general,  the  dairy  sections  of 
England  are  much  more  humid  than  those  of  America 
and  there  are  less  violent  changes  in  temperature.  Stilton 


FIG.  26.  — Stilton  cheeses  in  hoops,  draining. 

cheese-making  has  grown  up  to  take  advantage  of  this 
climatic  factor  in  handling  the  product.  Transplanta- 
tion of  such  an  industry  necessitates  a  mastery  not  only 
of  the  manipulations  but  a  grasp  of  the  fundamental 
principles  underlying  the  process  and  a  readjustment  of 
practices  to  preserve  those  principles. 


SEMI-HARD    CHEESES  163 

Stilton  is,  then,  a  soured  curd  cheese  in  whose  ripening 
a  very  prominent  part  is  played  by  the  green  mold  (usu- 
ally some  strain  of  P.  Roqueforti)  which  grows  throughout 
the  cavities  of  its  mass.1  At  its  best,  it  has  attractive 
texture  and  flavor.  Much  of  it  fails  to  reach  high  quality 
on  account  of  the  invasion  of  bacteria,  Oidium  lactis,eind 
very  frequently  myriads  of  cheese  mites.  The  following 
analysis  was  furnished  as  typical  for  ripe  cheese  by 
Miles  Benson,2  late  professor  of  dairying  at  Reading, 
England :  Water  31  per  cent,  fat  36  per  cent,  casein 
29  per  cent,  mineral  constituents  including  salt  about 
4  per  cent.  Approximately  the  same  figures  are  given 
by  Primrose  McConnell  (Agricultural  Note  Book).  The 
low  percentage  of  salt  is  another  factor  of  uncertainty 
in  the  control  of  this  Stilton  product,  as  in  Gorgon- 
zola,  since  these  cheeses  are  commonly  high  in  water- 
content  at  first  and  are  thus  subject  to  invasion  by 
Oidium. 

Stilton  has  been  made  on  a  small  scale  in  Canada  3 
and  occasionally  attempted  in  the  United  States.  No 
serious  effort  to  develop  an  industry  of  commercial  im- 
portance has  been  made  in  America.  Comparative  study 
of  the  cheeses  ripened  by  green  mold  tends  to  the  con- 
viction that  the  adaptation  of  the  Roquefort  practice  to 
the  use  of  cow's  milk  offers  a  more  satisfactory  basis  for 
experiment  than  efforts  to  establish  a  Stilton  or  a  Gorgon- 
zola  industry. 

1  Percival,  J.,  and  G.  Heather  Mason,  The  microflora  of  Stil- 
ton cheese,  Jour.  Agr.  Sci.  5  (1913),  part  2,  pages  222-229.     See 
also  Thorn,  C.,  Soft  cheese  studies  in  Europe,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Bur.  An.  Ind.  Kept.  22  (1905),  pages  79-109. 

2  Benson,  Miles,  in  personal  letter  from  analyses  of  cheeses 
selected  for  the  purpose. 

3  Dean,  H.  H.,  The  Creamery  Journal,  Nov.  1904. 


164  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

173.  Gex.  —  A  cheese  under  this  name  made  in  southern 
France  resembles,  in  its  general  character  as  a  ripened 
cheese,  the  English  Stilton  and  Italian  Gorgonzola.     Al- 
though it  has  no  commercial  importance,  reference  is  made 
to  this  cheese  to  show  that  mold-ripened  cheeses  have  been 
developed  entirely  independently  in  different  countries  to 
bring  about  the  same  general  character  of  product. 

174.  Bacterially  ripened  series.  —  The  semi-hard  cheeses 
ripened  by  bacteria  stand  half-way  between  true  Lim- 
burger  and  the  hard  forms.     In  fact,   brands  of  Lim- 
burger  are  readily  found  which  approach  the  texture  and 
ripening  of  Brick  cheese.     In  the  same  way,  Brick  cheeses 
are  often  found  which  have  the  appearance,  texture  and 
much  of  the  flavor  of  the  Cheddars  with  only  a  trace  of 
the  taste  of  Limburger.     Port  du  Salut,  Oka,  Munster, 
in  France  Livarot,  in  the  Balkan  regions  Kascoval,  belong 
in  this  series. 

175.  Brick    cheese.  —  The    name    of    this    cheese    is 
probably  due  to  the  finished  product  being  about  the  size 
and  shape  of  a  brick.     It  is  similar  to  the  German  cheese 
Backstein  and  may  have  been  developed  from  it.     It  is 
typically  a  sweet-curd  cheese,  made  from  milk  freshly 
drawn,   without  permitting  the  development  of  appre- 
ciable quantities  of  acidity  until  after  the  curd  has  been 
put  into  the  hoop.     In  the  making  process-,  it  is  inter- 
mediate between  Limburger  and  the  cheeses  of  the  Cheddar 
group.     Some  cheese-makers  use  an  ordinary  cheese  vat, 
others  a  copper  kettle  in  manufacturing. 

It  is  the  usual  practice  to  deliver  the  milk  to  the  cheese 
factory  both  morning  and  evening,  without  cooling. 
Cheese  is  made  twice  a  day.  In  some  cases  the  milk 
is  delivered  only  once  a  day,  and  extra  precautions  must 
then  be  taken  to  care  for  the  milk  properly. 


SEMI-HARD    CHEESES  165 

The  discussion  of  the  care  of  milk  in  Chapter  II 
applies  to  that  for  Brick  cheese.  For  the  best 
quality  of  cheese,  the  milk  in  the  vat  should  show 
about  0.15  of  1  per  cent  acidity  and  never  above  0.18  of 
1  per  cent.1 

176.  Making  of  Brick  cheese.2  —  The  milk  is  received 
at  the  cheese  factory  at  a  temperature  of  about  92°  to 
96°  F.  For  the  best  results,  the  acidity  should  be  deter- 
mined (by  the  acid  test)  to  decide  on  the  amount  of 
starter  to  use.  Few  Brick  cheese-makers  use  an  acid 
test  or  a  starter  but  these  precautions  would  improve  the 
product  of  many  factories.  For  method  of  using  the  acid 
test,  see  Chapter  V.  Chapter  IV  discusses  the  prepa- 
ration and  use  of  starter.  Usually  0.25  to  0.50  of  1 
per  cent  of  starter  is  the  amount  required.  A  small 
amount  of  starter  is  used  to  aid  the  development  of  lactic 
acid  and  for  the  beneficial  effect  'it  has  on  the  flavor. 
A  very  small  development  of  acid  is  desired  after  adding 
the  starter;  therefore  the  change  in  acidity  should  be 
very  carefully  watched  with  the  acid  test.  The  vat  is 
usually  set  when  the  acid  test  shows  0.16  of  1  per  cent 
acidity.  The  more  acid  in  the  milk,  the  less  starter  should 
be  employed.  Sufficient  rennet  extract  should  be  used 
to  give  a  coagulation  suitable  for  cutting  in  thirty  to 
thirty-five  minutes.  For  method  of  adding  the  rennet 
extract,  see  Chapter  V.  When  the  coagulum  is  firm 

1  N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  etc.,  Vol.  32,  no.  14,  page  536. 

2  N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  etc.,  Vol.  30,  no.  5,  page  188;   Vol.  30, 
no.  14,  page  534 ;   Vol.  31,  no.  5,  page  182. 

Marty,  G.,  Brick  cheesemaking,  Wis.  Cheese-makers  Assoc., 
15th  Annual  Meeting,  1907,  page  66. 

Wuethrich,  F.,  The  manufacture  of  Brick  cheese,  Wis.  Cheese- 
makers  Assoc.,  14th  Annual  Meeting,  1906,  page  50. 

Schenk,  C.,  Brick  cheesemaking,  Wis.  Cheese-makers  Assoc., 
13th  Annual  Meeting,  1905,  page  38. 


166  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

enough  for  the  curd  to  break  clean  over  the  finger,  it  is 
ready  to  cut.  The  curd  is  cut  with  coarse  knives  into 
I-  or  i-inch  cubes.  After  cutting,  the  curd  is  let  stand 
three  to  five  minutes,  then  stirred  with  the  hands  for  a 
few  minutes  until  the  whey  begins  to  separate  and  then 
stirred  with  the  rake.  Some  makers  do  not  stir  by  hand 
but  use  the  rake  directly  after  cutting.  When  this  is 
done,  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  stir  the  curd  with- 
out breaking  up  the  pieces,  because  this  causes  a  loss  of 
fat.  After  cutting  the  curd  is  stirred  for  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes  before  the  steam  is  turned  on.  The  curd  is 
heated  very  slowly  at  first  and  more  rapidly  during  the 
last  stages  of  cooking.  The  curd  is  cooked  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  110°  to  115°  F.  The  lower  the  temperature  that 
can  be  used  to  produce  firm  curd,  the  better  the  texture 
of  the  cheese.  After  cutting  and  during  the  cooking, 
the  curd  must  be  constantly  stirred  so  that  lumps  will 
not  form.  When  the  curd  forms  lumps,  the  moisture  is 
not  evenly  expelled.  This  results  in  uneven  texture  and 
curing.  Sometimes  some  salt  is  added  to  the  curd  in 
the  vat  to  restrain  souring.  The  curd  is  stirred  after 
cooking  until  it  is  sufficiently  firm.  It  remains  usually 
in  the  whey  for  a  total  period  of  one  and  one-fourth  to 
one  and  one-half  hours  from  the  time  of  cutting.  It  is 
then  dipped  into  forms  10  inches  long  by  5  inches  wide 
by  8  inches  deep.  The  forms  are  without  top  or  bottom 
and  are  placed  on  a  draining  table.  This  table  is  so 
constructed  that  the  whey  can  be  saved  for  stock  feed. 
When  ready  to  "  dip,"  the  whey  is  drawn  down  to  the 
surface  of  the  curd  in  the  vat,  then  the  curd  is  dipped 
into  the  forms  or  hoops.  Care  must  be  taken  to  get  the 
same  amount  of  curd  into  each  form  to  produce  the  cheeses 
of  uniform  size.  Each  cheese  is  turned  several  times 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  167 

to  insure  even  draining  and  even  reduction  of  the  temper- 
ature. While  draining,  a  follower  is  placed  in  each  hoop 
and  a  weight  placed  on  each  cheese.  Usually  a  brick 
is  used  for  this  weight.  A  cheese  is  allowed  to  drain  or 
press  for  ten  to  fifteen  hours.  It  is  then  placed  on  the 
salting  table  and  rubbed  with  coarse  salt.  While  on  the 
salting  table,  a  cheese  is  placed  on  its  broad  side.  Some 
cheese-makers  prefer  to  salt  their  cheeses  by  soaking  them 
in  a  salt  brine.  This  brine  should  be  strong  enough  to 
float  an  egg.  Salting  requires  three  days.  The  cheeses 
are  then  brushed  free  from  excess  salt  and  taken  to  the 
cellar  to  cure  or  ripen. 

177.  Ripening  Brick  cheese.  —  For  this  process,  the 
cellars  are  kept  at  about  90  per  cent  relative  humidity  and 
a  temperature  of  60°  to  65°  F.     Some  prefer  a  tempera- 
ture for  curing  as  high  as  68°  F.     During  the  curing,  the 
surfaces  of  the  cheese  are  kept  moist  and  mold  growths- 
kept  down  by  rubbing  or  brushing  the  cheese  with  pure 
water  or  salt  and  water.     In  the  curing  cellars  the  cheeses 
are  placed  on  shelves ;  at  first  they  are  set  close  together 
and  as  they  cure,  they  are  separated.     During  curing, 
the  color  changes  from  a  whitish  to  a  reddish  brown. 
The  cheese  cures  from  the  outside  toward  the  center. 
When  first  made,  the  product  is  harsh  and  hard  in  texture 
but  during  the  ripening  process  it  becomes  mellow  and 
smooth.     The  cheeses  remain  on  the  curing  shelves  for 
four  to  six  weeks,  after  which  they  are  wrapped  in  heavy 
waxed  paper  and   boxed.     A  cheese   ready  for  market 
usually  weighs  about  five  pounds.     A  Brick  cheese  box  is 
5  inches  deep  by  20  inches  wide  by  3  feet  long,  and  holds 
110  to  115  pounds  of  cheese. 

178.  Qualities  of  Brick  cheese.  —  The  cheeses  should 
be  neat  and  attractive  and  the  rind  not  cracked  or  broken. 


168  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

The  sides  should  be  square  and  not  bulged.  The  cheese 
should  have  a  clean,  characteristic  Brick  cheese  flavor. 
The  body  and  texture  should  be  mellow  and  smooth  and 
when  rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  should 
break  down  like  cold  butter.  The  color  should  be  uni- 
form. The  cheese  should  contain  the  proper  amount  of 
salt  and  moisture.  One  of  the  worst  faults  with  Brick 
cheese  is  bad  flavor.  This  is  many  times  due  to  the 
cheese-maker  not  using  clean  flavored  starter.  It  may 
also  be  due  to  bad  flavored  milk.  A  Brick  cheese-maker 
has  no  means  of  controlling  gassy  fermentations.  These 
show  themselves  in  the  bad  flavor  of  the  cheese  and  in 
the  porous  body.  They  also  cause  the  cheese  to  bulge. 
If  detected,  gassy  milk  should  be  rejected.  If  too  much 
acid  is  developed,  a  sour  cheese  is  the  result.  This  will 
not  cure  normally  and  usually  has  a  sour  flavor.  The 
body  will  be  brittle  and  mealy.  If  too  much  salt  is  used, 
the  cheese  njay  have  a  salty  taste  and  it  will  cure  very 
slowly.  If  not  enough  salt  is  used,  the  cheese  may  cure 
too  rapidly  and  undesirable  flavors  and  fermentations 
develop.  The  cheese  must  have  the  proper  moisture- 
content;  if  too  much  moisture  is  present,  the  cheese 
cures  too  fast  and  is  soft  and  pasty  in  body ;  if  not  enough 
moisture,  then  the  reverse  is  true.  Tabulation  of  cheeses 
of  special  quality,  as  submitted  in  scoring  contests,  show 
an  average  water-content  of  37  to  38  per  cent,  with 
occasional  cheeses  verging  toward  Limburger  in  texture 
and  flavor  with  40  to  42  per  cent  water,  and  others  in- 
distinguishable from  Cheddar,  with  water-content  as 
low  as  34  per  cent. 

The  Wisconsin  Cheese-makers  Association  uses  the 
following  score-card  for  the  judging  of  Brick  cheese  on  a 
scale  of  100 : 


SEMI-HARD    CHEESES  169 

Flavor ,     .     .      40 

Texture 40 

Color 10 

Salt   .     i 5 

Style _5^ 

100 

179.  Composition    and    yield.  —  The   composition    of 
Brick  cheese  varies  within   wide    limits.     The    average 
cheese  probably  contains  from  37  to  39  per  cent  of  water, 
although  many  cheeses  are  above  and  below  this  average ; 
Doane  and  Lawson  x  give  the  fat  as  28.86  per  cent,  pro- 
teins 23.8  per  cent  and  total  ash  4.20  per  cent. 

The  composition  and  yield  are  both  affected  by  :  (1)  the 
moisture-content  of  the  cheese;  (2)  composition  of  the 
milk  from  which  made;  and  (3)  losses  during  the  manu- 
facturing process.  The  average  yield  of  Brick  cheese 
is  11  to  13  pounds  to  100  pounds  of  milk. 

180.  Port   du   Salut   cheese. —  The   Trappist   monks 
originated  this  type  of  cheese  in  their  monasteries  in 
France.     Under  the  name  of  their  community  Oka,   it 
has  been  made  and  sold  widely  by  the  Trappist  Fathers 
of  Quebec.     In   recent  years,   factories   independent   of 
the  order  have  made  such  cheese  both  in  America  and 
in  Europe. 

The  following  outline  of  the  making  process  indicates 
the  close  relationship  between  Port  du  Salut  and  Brick 
cheeses.  Whole  milk  or  milk  not  over  one-fifth  skimmed 
is  ripened  to  medium  acidity,  then  heated  to  90°  to  95°  F. 
according  to  season  and  acidity.  Rennet  enough  is 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  and  H.  W.  Lawson,  Varieties  of  cheese,  de- 
scriptions and  analysis,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  of  An.  Ind.  Bui. 
146,  1911. 


170  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

added  (see  Chapter  V)  to  curdle  in  thirty  to  forty  min- 
utes, although  some  makers  shorten  the  time  to  twenty 
minutes.  When  formed,  the  curd  is  cut  into  small  cubes 
and  excess  of  whey  is  dipped  away.  The  constantly 
stirred  mass  is  then  heated  or  cooked  to  100°  to  105°  F. 
within  a  period  of  ten  to  twelve  minutes  or  according  to 
some  makers  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  It  is  allowed 
to  stand  a  few  minutes  to  settle.  Most  of  the  whey  is 
then  drawn  and  the  mass  is  stirred  vigorously  to  prevent 
fusion  of  the  curd  granules.  The  curd  is  ready  for  the 
hoop  when  the  particles  are  about  the  size  of  grains  of 
wheat  and  do  not  stick  together  when  squeezed  with  the 
hand.  The  individual  grains  of  curd  should  crumble 
easily  between  the  fingers.  The  hot  curd  is  transferred 
directly  to  the  hoops  without  cooling.  For  this  purpose, 
a  hoop  is  set  upon  the  table  covered  with  a  cloth  and  the 
curd  dipped  into  the  cloth.  The  edges  of  the  cloth  are 
then  folded  over.  In  this  condition  the  cheese  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  press  where  gradually  increasing  pressure 
begins  with  3  to  4  pounds  and  reaches  about  70  pounds. 
To  insure  proper  shape,  cheeses  are  turned  and  put  into 
fresh  cloths  at  the  end  of  the  first  hour  and  turned  subse- 
quently several  times  during  the  pressing  period  of  about 
twelve  hours.1 

Port  du  Salut  cheeses  are  salted  by  rubbing  fine  salt 
on  the  surface  by  hand  at  the  rate  of  1.2  to  2  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  cheese.  After  about  two  days  in 
the  salting  process,  they  are  put  into  the  ripening  cellars. 
The  cellars  are  wet,  since  they  reach  90  to  95  per  cent 
relative  humidity  at  a  temperature  of  about  55°  F. 
After  two  days  in  the  cellar,  the  cheeses  are  plunged 

1  Ligeon,  X.,  Herstellung  des  Port  Salut  Eases,  Milchztg.  38 
(1909),  no.  39,  pages  459-460. 


SEMI-HARD   CHEESES  171 

into  a  tank  of  saturated  brine  to  which  a  trace  of  cheese 
color  has  been  added.  As  they  come  out  of  these  tanks, 
they  are  yellowish  and  greasy  or  slimy.  They  are  re- 
turned to  the  shelves  where  they  are  rubbed  every  day 
with  a  cloth  or  by  hands  wet  in  brine.  After  about  one 
week  they  are  again  plunged  in  the  brine.  Treatment 
with  brine  tends  to  insure  a  firm  rind.  The  cheeses  are 
rubbed  more  or  less  regularly  with  brine  through  the 
whole  ripening  period. 

After  six  weeks,  such  cheese  may  be  eaten.  The  cut 
surface  of  Port  du  Salut  is  creamy  in  color,  may  or  may 
not  show  small  holes.  In  texture  it  is  soft  enough  to 
spread  readily  under  pressure  without  losing  its  shape 
in  handling.  In  flavor  the  cheese  is  a  mild  form  belong- 
ing to  the  Limburger  group. 

Port  du  Salut  cheeses  as  imported  from  France  usually 
are  firm  round  cakes  about  1^  inches  thick,  weighing 
about  3  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE    HARD    CHEESES 

THE  hard  cheeses  form  a  great  series  of  groups,  whose 
most  prominent  physical  character  is  their  firm  or  hard 
texture.  This  is  correlated  with  comparatively  low 
water-content,  which  is  usually  between  30  and  40  per 
cent.  Although  certain  varieties  occasionally  test  above 
40  per  cent  water,  this  deviation  is  accompanied  by 
quick  ripening  and  rapid  spoilage.  These  varieties  of 
cheese  are  staple  products  with  long  marketable  periods ; 
therefore  they  may  be  handled  in  large  lots,  shipped, 
carted  and  stored  freely  without  the  losses  such  treat- 
ment would  entail  in  soft  cheese.  The  retailer  frequently 
buys  hard  cheese  by  the  ton,  not  by  the  cheese  or  by 
the  box. 

In  making,  these  varieties  are  characterized  as  cooked 
and  pressed  cheeses.  Although  both  the  heating  of  a 
curd  and  the  pressing  of  a  newly  made  cheese  occur  among 
semi-hard  forms,  these  practices  appear  in  their  most 
typical  forms  in  the  hard  cheeses. 

The  hard  cheeses  show  two  types  of  texture.  A  cut 
cheese  may  appear  smooth,  free  from  holes  or  with  a  few 
angular  cracks  or  seams,  or  it  may  show  round  holes  or 
"eyes."  In  the  smooth  textured  forms  every  effort  is 
made  to  prevent  gassy  fermentations,  usually  by  control- 
ling the  fermentation  of  the  curd  in  the  making  process. 

172 


THE  HARD  CHEESES  173 

When  "  eyes  "  are  present,  the  end  sought  has  been  a 
development  of  a  particular  form  of  gassy  fermentation 
which  gives  this  appearance  and  brings  about  the  char- 
acteristic ripening  texture  and  flavor. 

The  hard  cheeses  have  been  developed  in  groups  of 
national  varieties.  The  best  known  of  these  groups  are 
those  which  may  be  represented  by  English  Cheddar, 
American  Factory  Cheddar,  Danish,  the  Edam  of  Hol- 
land, Swiss  and  Parmesan  with  many  related  varieties 
in  Italy  and  neighboring  countries  of  southern  Europe. 

181.  The   Danish   group.  —  The   Danish   cheeses   are 
related  in  appearance  and  flavor  to  the  English  group 
represented   by   Cheddar.     The   demand   for   butter   in 
Europe  has  been  so  great  that  the  Danish  cheese-makers 
have  developed  skim  and  part  skim  varieties  largely  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  whole  milk  form.     Skillful  handling 
of  their  process  has  resulted  in  a  product  which  has  had 
a  very  large  and  appreciative  market  in  England  and 
Germany. 

182.  The  Dutch  group.  —  Edam  and  Gouda  are  the 
two  forms  of  cheese  made  in  Holland  and  most  widely 
known  among  other  peoples.     Both  reach  America  in  con- 
siderable quantities;  both  are  shipped  in  large  amounts 
to    tropical    countries.     Although    attempts    have    been 
made  to  manufacture  them  in  America,  no  commercial 
production   of   these   cheeses   has    been   successful.     Al- 
though whole  milk  grades  of  these  cheeses  are  known, 
they  are  to  a  large  measure  part  skim  in  manufacture. 
The  presence  of  one  or  both  of  these  forms  in  every  large 
market  in  America  makes  the  general  facts  of  their  produc- 
tion of  general  interest.     Parts  of  a  report  on  experimental 
work  in  the  making  of  Edam  and  Gouda  are,  therefore, 
given  here. 


174  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

183.  Edam  cheese  1  is  a  sweet-curd  type,  made  from 
partially  skimmed-milk.     It  comes  to  the  market  in  the 
form  of  round  red   balls,  each  weighing  from  3^  to  4 
pounds   when    cured.       It  is   largely    manufactured    in 
northern  Holland  and  derives   its  name  from  a  town 
famous  as  a  market  for  this  kind  of  cheese.2    Milk  from 
which  one-fourth  to  one-third   of   the  fat  has  been  re- 
moved is   used.     Too   great  pains  cannot  be  taken  in 
regard  to  the  condition  of  the  milk.     It  should  be  fresh, 
free  from  every  trace  of  taint ;   in  brief,  it  should  be  in 
as  perfect  condition  as  possible. 

184.  Method  of  manufacture.  —  The  following  para- 
graphs give  the  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  Edam  cheese : 

Treatment  of  milk  before  adding  rennet.  —  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  should  be  brought  up  to  a  point  not 
below  85°  F.  nor  much  above  88°  F.  When  the  desired 
temperature  has  become  constant,  the  coloring  matter 
should  be  added.  Cheese  color  is  used  at  the  rate  of  1 J 
to  2  ounces  for  1000  pounds  of  milk.  The  coloring  matter 
should,  of  course,  be  added  to  the  milk  and  thoroughly 
incorporated  by  stirring  before  the  rennet  is  added. 

Addition  of  rennet  to  milk.  —  The  rennet  should  not  be 
added  until  the  milk  has  reached  the  desired  temperature 
(85°  to  88°  F.)  and  this  temperature  has  become  constant. 

1  These  paragraphs  were  taken  from  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  56, 
Experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese ;  Part  I.     The  manu- 
facture of  Edam  cheese,  1893.     See  also,  Haecker,  T.  L.,  Experi- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  35, 
1894. 

2  Boekhout,  F.  W.  J.,  and  J.  J.  O.  de  Vries,  Cracking  of  Edam, 
Verslag.  Landbouwk.-  Onderzoek.  Rykslandboupoef stat.  (Nether- 
lands), 20  (1917),  pages  71-78,  fig.  1. 

Boekhout,  F.  W.  F.,  and  J.  J.  O.  de  Vries,  Sur  le  de"faut 
"Knijpers"  dans  le  fromage  d'Edam,  Rev.  Gen.  Lait,  9  (1913), 
no.  18,  pages  420-427. 


THE  HARD  CHEESES  175 

When  the  temperature  reaches  the  desired  point  and  re- 
mains there  stationary,  the  rennet  extract  is  added. 
Rennet  extract  may  be  used,  4^  to  5  J  ounces  being  taken 
for  1000  pounds  of  milk,  or  enough  to  coagulate  the  milk 
in  the  desired  time,  at  the  actual  temperature  used. 
The  milk  should  be  completely  coagulated,  ready  for 
cutting,  in  about  twelve  to  eighteen  minutes  from  the 
time  the  rennet  is  added.  The  same  precaution  observed 
in  making  Cheddar  cheese  should  be  followed  in  making 
Edam  cheese  with  reference  to  care  in  adding  the  rennet, 
such  as  careful,  accurate  measurement,  dilution  with 
pure  water  before  addition  to  milk. 

Cutting  the  curd  for  Edam.  —  When  the  curd  breaks 
clean  across  the  finger,  it  should  be  cut ;  it  is  cut  a  very 
little  softer  than  in  the  Cheddar  process  as  ordinarily  prac- 
ticed. As  stated,  this  stage  of  hardness  in  the  curd  which 
fits  it  for  cutting  should  come  in  twelve  to  eighteen  min- 
utes after  the  rennet  is  added.  First,  a  vertical  knife 
is  used  and  the  curd  is  cut  lengthwise,  after  which  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  slices  of  curd  begin  to  show  the 
separation  of  whey.  Then  the  vertical  knife  is  used  in 
cutting  crosswise,  after  which  the  horizontal  knife  is  at 
once  used.  Any  curd  adhering  to  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  vat  is  carefully  removed  by  the  hand,  after  which 
the  curd-knife  is  again  passed  through  the  mass  of  curd 
lengthwise  and  crosswise,  continuing  the  cutting  until 
the  curd  has  been  cut  as  uniformly  as  possible  into  very 
small  pieces. 

Treatment  of  Edam  curd  after  cutting.  — When  the  cutting 
is  completed,  one  commences  at  once  to  heat  the  curd  up 
to  the  temperature  of  93°  to  96°  F.  The  heating  is  done 
as  quickly  as  possible.  While  the  heating  is  in  progress, 
the  curd  is  kept  constantly  agitated  to  prevent  settling 


176  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

and  consequent  overheating.  As  soon  as  the  curd  shows 
signs  of  hardening,  which  the  experience  of  the  worker 
will  enable  him  to  determine,  the  whey  is  drawn  off  until 
the  upper  surface  of  the  curd  appears,  when  one  should 
commence  to  fill  the  press  molds. 

Filling  molds,  pressing  and  dressing  Edam.  —  The 
molds,  which  are  described  later  in  detail,  are  well  soaked 
in  warm  water  previous  to  use,  in  order  to  prevent  too 
sudden  chilling  of  curd  and  consequent  checking  of  sepa- 
ration of  whey.  As  soon  as  whey  is  drawn  off,  as  indi- 
cated above,  one  begins  to  fill  the  pressing  molds  (Fig.  27) . 
The  filling  should  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  prevent 
too  great  cooling  of  curd.  When  the  curd  has  been  put 
into  the  molds,  its  temperature  should 
not  be  below  88°  F.  Unless  care  is  taken 
to  keep  the  curd  covered,  the  portion 
that  is  last  put  into  the  molds  may  be- 
come too  much  cooled.  In  making  Edam 
FIG.  27.  —  Edam  cheese  on  a  small  scale,  it  is  a  good  plan 

cheese  mold.  ,  i  •  ,  ^1.111 

to  squeeze  the  moisture  out  with  the  hands 
as  much  as  possible  and  then  break  it  up  again  before  put- 
ting in  the  molds,  when  the  curd  should  be  pressed  into 
the  mold  firmly  by  the  hands.  The  molds  should  be  filled 
as  nearly  alike  as  possible.  The  cheese  should  weigh  from 
5  to  5J  pounds  each  when  ready  for  the  press.  When  the 
filling  of  molds  is  completed,  they  are  put  under  continual 
pressure  of  20  to  25  pounds  for  about  twenty-five  or  thirty 
minutes.  While  the  cheese  is  being  pressed,  some  sweet 
whey  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  125°  or  130°  F.,  and 
this  whey  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  below  120°  F.  at 
any  time  while  it  is  being  used.  When  the  cheeses  are 
taken  from  their  molds,  each  is  put  into  the  warm  whey 
for  two  minutes,  then  removed  and  dressed.  For  dress- 


THE  HARD  CHEESES  177 

ing  Edam  cheese,  the  ordinary  cheese  bandage  cloth  is 
used.  This  is  cut  into  strips,  which  should  be  long  enough 
to  reach  entirely  around  the  cheese  and  overlap  an  inch 
or  so,  and  which  should  be  wide  enough  to  cover  all  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  ends  of  the  cheese  when  put  in 
place.  Before  putting  on  the  bandage,  all  rough  pro- 
jections should  be  carefully  pared  from  the  cheese.  In 
putting  on,  the  cheese  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the  bandage 
is  wrapped  carefully  around  the  cheese,  so  that  the  whole 
is  covered,  except  a  small  portion  on  the  upper  and  lower 
surface  of  the  cheese.  These  bare  spots  are  covered  by 
small  pieces  of  bandage  cloth  of  a  size  sufficient  to  fill 
the  bare  surface.  The  bandage  is  kept  wet  with  the  warm 
sweet  whey,  thus  facilitating  the  process  of  dressing. 
After  each  cheese  is  dressed,  it  should  be  replaced  in  the 
dressing  mold,  care  being  taken  that  the  bandage  remains 
in  place  and  leaves  no  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  cheese 
uncovered  and  in  direct  contact  with  the  mold.  The 
cheese  is  then  put  under  continual  pressure  of  60  to  120 
pounds  and  kept  for  six  to  twelve  hours. 

185.  Salting  and  curing  Edam. — There  are  two 
methods  which  may  be  employed  in  salting,  —  dry  and 
wet.  In  dry-salting,  when  the  cheese  is  finally  taken  from 
the  press,  it  is  removed  from  the  press  mold,  its  bandage 
is  removed  completely,  and  the  cheese  placed  in  another 
mold,  quite  similar,  known  as  the  salting  mold.  Each 
cheese  is  placed  in  a  salting  mold  with  a  coating  of  fine 
salt  completely  surrounding  it.  The  cheese  is  salted  in 
this  way  once  each  day  for  five  or  six  days.  Each  day 
the  cheese  should  be  turned  when  it  is  replaced  in  the 
mold,  so  that  it  will  not  be  rounded  on  one  end  more 
than  the  other. 

In  the  method  of  wet-salting,  the  cheese  is  placed  in  a 


178  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

tank  of  salt  brine,  made  by  dissolving  common  salt  in 
water  in  the  proportion  of  about  1  pound  of  salt  to  2| 
quarts  of  water.  Each  cheese  is  turned  once  a  day  and 
should  be  left  in  the  brine  seven  or  eight  days.  When 
the  cheese  is  taken  from  the  salting  mold  or  salt  bath,  it 
is  placed  in  warm  water  and  given  a  vigorous,  thorough 
brushing  in  order  to  remove  all  slimy  or  greasy  substances 
that  may  have  accumulated  on  the  outer  surface.  When 
the  surface  is  well  cleansed,  the  cheese  is  carefully  wiped 
dry  with  a  linen  towel  and  placed  upon  a  shelf  in  the  cur- 
ing-room. In  being  put  on  the  shelves,  the  cheeses  should 
be  placed  in  contact  so  as  to  support  one  another,  until 
they  have  flattened  out  at  both  ends  so  much  that  they 
can  stand  upright  alone.  Then  they  are  moved  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  a  little  air  space  between  them. 
Another  method  of  securing  the  flattened  ends  is  to  sup- 
port each  cheese  on  opposite  sides  by  wedge-shaped  pieces 
of  wood.  After  being  placed  on  the  shelves  in  the  curing- 
room,  they  are  turned  once  a  day  and  rubbed  with  the 
bare  hand  during  the  first  month,  twice  a  week  during  the 
second  month  and  once  a  week  after  that.  When  any 
slimy  substance  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  cheese,  it 
should  be  washed  off  at  once  with  warm  water  or  sweet 
whey.  The  special  conditions  of  the  curing-room  will 
be  noticed  in  detail  below.  When  the  cheeses  are  about 
two  months  old,  they  can  be  prepared  for  market  in  the 
following  manner:  They  are  first  made  smooth  on  the 
surface  by  being  turned  in  a  lathe  or  in  some  other  manner, 
after  which  the  surface  is  colored.  For  coloring,  some 
carmine  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  ammonia  to  secure  the 
proper  shade,  and  in  this  color-bath  the  cheeses  are  placed 
for  about  one  minute,  when  they  are  removed  and  allowed 
to  drain,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  dry  the  outside  of  each 


THE   HARD    CHEESES  179 

cheese  is  rubbed  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent checking.  They  are  then  wrapped  in  tin-foil,  which 
is  done  very  much  like  the  bandaging.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  put  on  the  tin-foil  so  that  it  presents  a  smooth, 
neat  appearance.  The  cheeses  are  finally  packed  in  boxes, 
containing  twelve  cheeses  in  each  box,  arranged  in  two 
layers  of  six  each  with  a  separate  partition  for  each 
cheese. 

186.  Equipment  for  making  Edam  cheese.  —  Careful 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  moisture  and  temperature 
of  the  curing-room.  This  room  should  be  well  venti- 
lated, quite  moist  and  its  temperature  kept  between  50° 
and  65°  F.  These  are  conditions  not  easy  to  secure  in 
any  ordinary  room.  Some  form  of  cellar  is  best  adapted 
for  these  conditions.  The  amount  of  moisture  can  be 
determined  by  an  instrument  known  as  a  hygrometer. 
In  a  curing-room  suited  for  Edam  cheese,  the  moisture 
should  be  between  85  and  95  per  cent,  or  a  little  short  of 
saturation.  When  the  temperature  is  between  50°  and 
65°  F.,  the  moisture  is  between  85  and  95  per  cent  if 
the  wet-bulb  thermometer  is  from  1  to  2°  F.  (or  J 
to  1°  C.)  below  the  dry-bulb  thermometer.  Cheese  will 
check  or  crack  and  be  spoiled  for  market,  if  the  degree 
of  moisture  is  not  kept  high  enough. 

Aside  from  the  molds,  press  and  salting  vat,  the  same 
apparatus  that  is  used  in  making  Cheddar  can  be  used  for 
Edam  cheese.  The  pressing  mold  is  turned  preferably 
from  white  wood  or,  in  any  case,  from  wood  that  will 
not  taint.  Each  mold  consists  of  two  parts;  the  lower 
constitutes  the  main  part  of  the  mold,  the  upper  portion 
is  simply  a  cover.  The  lower  portion  or  body  of  the  mold 
has  several  holes  in  the  bottom,  from  which  the  whey 
flows  when  the  cheese  is  pressed.  Care  must  be  taken 


180  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

to  prevent  these  holes  being  stopped  up  by  curd.  This 
part  of  the  mold  is  about  six  inches  deep  and  six  inches 
in  diameter  across  the  top.  The  salting  mold  has  no  cover 
and  the  bottom  is  provided  with  only  one  hole  for  the 
out-flow  of  whey;  in  other  respects  it  is  much  like  the 
pressing  mold. 

187.  Qualities    and    yield    of    Edam    cheese.  —  The 
flavor  of  a  perfect  Edam  cheese  is  difficult  to  describe. 
It  is  mild,  clean,  and  pleasantly  saline.     In   imperfect 
Edams,  the  flavor  is  more  or  less  sour  and  offensive.     In 
body,  a  perfect  Edam  cheese  is  solid,  rather  dry  and 
mealy  or  crumbly.     In  texture,  it  should  be  close  and  free 
from  pores.     In  the  experiments  here  reported  the  amount 
of  fat  in  100  pounds  of  the  partially  skimmed-milk  varied 
from  2.45  to  3.20  pounds  and  averaged  2.77  pounds.      Of 
this  amount,  from  0.30  to  0.51   pound  of  fat  was  lost 
in  the  whey,  with  an  average  of  0.39  pound.     The  yield 
of  cheese  from  100  pounds  of  milk  varied  from  9.60  to 
11.82  pounds  and  averaged  10.56  pounds. 

188.  Gouda  cheese. 1  —  This  Dutch  variety  is  a  sweet- 
curd  cheese  made  from  whole  milk.     In  shape,  the  Gouda 
cheese  is  somewhat  like  a  Cheddar  with  the  sharp  edges 
rounded  off  and  sloping  toward  the  outer  circumference 
at  the  middle  from  the  end  faces.     They  usually  weigh 
10  or  12  pounds,  though  they  vary  in  weight  from  8  to 
16  pounds.     They  are  largely  manufactured  in  southern 

1  Paragraphs  taken  from  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  56,  Experi- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  ;  Part  II.  The  manufacture 
of  Gouda  cheese,  1893.  See  also,  Hay  ward,  H.,  Method  of 
making  Gouda  cheese,  Pa.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1890,  pages  79-81, 
and  Haecker,  T.  L.,  Experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese, 
Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  35,  1894,  and  Monrad,  J.  H.,  in  N.  Y. 
Produce  Rev.  25  (1907),  no.  8,  page  336,  where  a  home  process 
of  making  this  cheese  is  given. 


THE   HARD    CHEESES  181 

Holland,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  town  in  which 
they  were  first  made.  Fresh  sweet  milk  that  has  been 
produced  and  cared  for  in  the  best  possible  manner  should 
be  used. 

189.  Method  of  manufacture.  —  The  processes  of 
manufacturing  Gouda  cheese  are  as  follows : 

Treatment  of  milk  before  adding  rennet.  —  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  should  be  brought  up  to  a  point  not  below 
88°  F.  nor  much  above  90°  F.  When  the  desired  tempera- 
ture has  been  reached  and  has  become  constant,  the  color- 
ing matter  is  added.  One  ounce  of  cheese  color  for  about 
1200  pounds  of  milk  may  be  used.  The  coloring  matter 
should  be  thoroughly  incorporated  by  stirring  before 
the  rennet  is  added. 

Addition  of  rennet  to  milk.  —  The  rennet  should  not 
be  added  until  the  milk  has  reached  the  desired  tempera- 
ture (88  to  90°  F.)  and  this  temperature  has  become  con- 
stant. The  milk  should  be  completely  coagulated,  ready 
for  cutting,  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  The  same 
precautions  should  be  used  in  adding  rennet  as  those 
previously  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  manufac- 
ture of  Edam  cheese. 

Cutting  the  curd.  —  The  curd  should  be  cut  when  it  is 
of  about  the  hardness  generally  observed  for  cutting  in 
the  Cheddar  process.  The  cutting  is  done  as  in  the  Ched- 
dar process  except  that  the  curd  is  cut  a  little  finer  in  the 
Gouda  cheese.  Curd  should  be  about  the  size  of  peas 
or  wheat  kernels  when  ready  for  press  and  as  uniform  in 
size  as  possible. 

Treatment  of  curd  after  cutting.  —  After  the  cutting  is 
completed,  heating  and  stirring  is  begun  at  once.  The 
heating  and  constant  stirring  is  continued  until  the  curd 
reaches  a  temperature  of  104°  F.,  which  should  require 


182  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

from  thirty  to  forty  minutes.  When  the  curd  becomes 
rubber-like  in  feeling,  the  whey  should  be  run  off.  The 
whey  should  be  entirely  sweet  when  it  is  removed. 

Pressing  and  dressing  Gouda.  —  After  the  whey  is  off, 
the  curd  is  put  in  molds  at  once  without  salting 
(Fig.  28).  Pains  should  be  taken  in  this  process  to  keep 
the  temperature  of  the  curd  as  near  100°  F.  as  possible. 
Each  cheese  is  placed  under  continuous  pressure  amount- 
ing to  ten  or  twenty  times  its  own  weight  and  kept  for 
about  half  an  hour.  The  first  bandage  is  put  on  in  very 
much  the  same  manner  as  in  Edam  cheese  making.  The 
cheese  is  then  put  in  press  again  for  about  one  hour. 
The  first  bandage  is  then  taken  off  and 
a  second  one  like  the  first  put  on  with 
great  care,  taking  pains  to  make  the 
bandage  smooth,  capping  the  ends  as 
before.  The  cheese  is  then  put  in  press 
again  and  left  twelve  hours  or  more. 
Salting  and  curing.  —  When  Gouda 

FIG.  28.  —  Gouda     cheese  is  taken  from  the  press,  the  band- 
cheese  mold.  .  .          .    .      .        ,         ,     „ 

age  is  removed  and   it  is   placed   tor 

twenty-four  hours  in  a  curing-room  like  that  used  for 
Edam  cheese,  as  previously  described.  Each  cheese  is 
then  rubbed  all  over  with  dry  salt  until  the  salt  begins  to 
dissolve,  and  this  same  treatment  is  continued  twice  a 
day  for  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  each  cheese 
is  carefully  and  thoroughly  washed  in  warm  water  and 
dried  with  a  clean  linen  towel.  The  cheeses  are  then 
placed  on  the  shelves  of  the  curing-room,  turned  once  a  day 
and  rubbed.  The  temperature  and  moisture  are  con- 
trolled as  described  in  the  curing  process  of  Edam 
cheese.  If  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  cheese  become  slimy 
at  any  time,  they  are  carefully  washed  in  warm  water 


THE   HARD    CHEESES  183 

and  dried  with  clean  towels.     Under  these  conditions, 
cheese  ripens  in  two  or  three  months. 

190.  Equipment  for  Gouda  cheese.  —  The  molds,  press 
and  curing-room  are  the  only  equipment  needed  in  the 
making  of  Gouda  cheese  that  differ  from  that  employed 
in  making  Cheddar  cheese.     The  mold  used  for  Gouda 
cheese  consists  of  two  portions,  which  .are  shown  sepa- 
rately in  Fig.  28.     These  molds  are  made  of  heavy  pressed 
tin.     The  inside  diameter  at  the  middle  is  about  10  inches, 
that  of  the  ends  about  6  J  inches.     The  height  of  the  mold 
is  about  5^  inches,  and  this  represents  the  thickness  of 
the  cheese,  but   by   pushing  the  upper   down  into  the 
lower  portion,  the  thickness  can  be  decreased  as  desired. 

191.  Composition  and  yield  of  Gouda.  —  In  work  with 
milk  averaging  4.2  per  cent  of  fat  there  were  lost  in  the 
whey  from  0.29  to  0.43  per  cent  with  an  average  of  0.35  per 
cent  of  fat.      The  loss  of  fat  appears  to  be  not  much 
greater  than  the  average  loss  met  with  in  cheese  factories 
in  making  Cheddar  cheese.     From  100  pounds  of  milk, 
there  were  made  from   11.60  to   13.35  pounds  of  green 
cheese,   with   an   average   of   12.50   pounds.     The  per- 
centage   of   water    in    the    experimental    cheese   varied 
from  41.25  to  45.43  per  cent   and   averaged  43.50  per 
cent. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 

CHEDDAR  is  the  best  known  cheese  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  one  most  commonly  made  in 
factories.  The  Cheddar  process  was  brought  to  America 
by  English  immigrants.  Similar  to  Cheddar  cheese  are 
Pineapple,  English  Dairy,  Sage  cheese,  skimmed -milk 
and  California  Jack  cheese  made  in  this  country,  and 
Derbyshire,  Leicestershire,  Wensleydale  and  Cheshire  made 
in  England.  The  Cheddar  cheese  process  as  employed 
in  the  factories  to-day  has  been  modified  and  improved 
since  it  was  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  the 
early  immigrants.  The  following  description1  includes 
only  the  practices  as  found  in  the  factories  to-day  if 
whole  milk  is  used.  Skimined-milk  Cheddar  cheese 
is  discussed  later. 

192.  The  lot-card.  —  The  Cheddar  process  involves 
several  hours  of  manipulation  and  includes  many  details 
which  should  be  closely  and  accurately  observed  and 
recorded.  The  necessity  of  carrying  observations  of 
Several  different  factors  at  the  same  time  makes  a  scheme 
of  recording  data  essential  to  convenient  work.  For 
this  purpose,  a  lot-card  for  Cheddar  cheese  is  introduced 
here  and  the  pages  given  to  particular  factors  are  in- 
dicated in  the  space  intended  for  the  recording  of  observa- 

1  The  authors  acknowledge  here  the  helpful  suggestions  and 
criticisms  of  G.  C.  Button,  New  York  State  Cheese  Instructor. 

184 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 


185 


& 


186  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

tions.  The  manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese  is  a  compli- 
cated process,  because  several  factors  must  be  given 
attention  at  the  same  time.  A  careful  record  of  the 
observations  of  each  step  in  the  successive  handling  of 
each  lot  of  milk  puts  the  operator  in  possession  of  a  per- 
manent record  of  his  experience.  This  record  has  several 
uses.  It  may  help  to  convince  patrons  of  the  importance 
of  eliminating  faults  in  the  milk ;  it  furnishes  the  cheese- 
maker  a  cumulative  record  of  his  experiences  in  handling 
milk  with  special  qualities,  such  as  high  or  low  fat-content, 
over-acidity  or  taints.  Since  Cheddar  ripening  covers  a 
period  of  weeks  and  months,  no  operator  can  remember 
particular  lots  of  milk  sufficiently  well  to  be  able  to 
use  his  experience  on  the  interpretation  of  the  qualities 
found  in  the  ripened  product. 

193.  The  milk.  —  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  deliver  the 
milk  to  the  cheese  factory  each  morning  (Fig.  29).  The 
night's  milk  is  cooled  and  kept  clean  and  cold  until  de- 
livered at  the  factory.  It  is  advisable  not  to  mix  the  cold 
night's  milk  and  the  warm  morning's  milk,  but  to  deliver 
them  in  separate  cans  to  the  cheese  factory  at  the  same  time. 
The  milk  is  weighed,  sample  for  fat  test  taken  and  then 
run  into  the  vat  (Fig.  30).  The  receiving  or  taking  in 
of  the  milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
cheese  factory  work.  It  is  practically  as  important  as 
the  actual  manufacturing  of  the  cheese. 

Any  milk  high  in  acid  or  with  a  bad  flavor  should  be 
avoided.  It  is  often  bad  policy  to  reject  the  milk,  for 
a  neighboring  factory  will  accept  it  and  the  factory  not 
only  loses  the  milk  but  also  the  patron.  Factories  should 
have  an  agreement  to  prevent  this.  The  acidity  can  be 
determined  by  the  acid  test,  but  the  detection  of  flavors 
must  be  made  by  the  cheese-maker  himself  with  the  aid 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 


187 


21  CHEESE.     This  card  must  remain  with  lot from  the  milk  room  until 

the  finished  product  is  ready  to  leave  the  building,  then  it  should  be  handed  to 
instructor. 

MAKING     Day  and  Date .     Vat 

Milk 


Used 


Milk 
Appearance  of  Milk  


Taste 

Weather  conditions. 


Total  pounds 


%  fat      Ibs.  fat 

.%  solids  not  fat  Ibs.  s.  n.  f. 

.%  casein  Ibs.  casein. 


Starter 

Kind  used 

Flavor 

Acidity 

Amount  used %  used- 


Minutes 


Time  of 

adding  starter....  \ 

adding  rennet  .... 

coagulation 

cutting  ._ 

turn'g  on  steam., 
turn'g  off  steam 

dipping 

packing ._ 

milling 

salting 

hooping 

pressing. 

dressing 


Total  time  from  1 
setting  to  pressing  J  " 


%  Acid 
In  Milk 

when  received 

before  adding  starter. 

after  adding  starter.... 

when  rennet  added 

In  Whey 

after  curd  is  cut 

at  dipping._ 

at  packing 

at  milling 

at  salting 


Temperature 
of  milk  when  received 
when  starter  added.... 
when  rennet  added  .... 
when  whey  removed.... 
at  pressing 


Rennet  Test 
when  milk  received.... 
after  adding  starter.... 
when  rennet  added 


Hot  Iron  Test 

at  dipping 

at  packing 


at  milling 

at  salting 


Condition  of  Curd 


when  cut 

when  packed 

when  milled 

when  salted 

when  pressed 


Amount  per 

1000  Ibs.  milk 

Total  Amount 


Color        Rennet 


Salt 


%  fat  in  Ibs.  fat  esti- 

whey       mated  so  lost. 

%  of  total  milk 

fat  lost  in  whey 

Assisted  by 


If  comments  are  added  on 

reverse  side,  put  cross  here 

Work  and 

Observations  by 


YIELD     Day  and  Date Time 

Serial 

Weight  of  cheese  when  removed  from  press  to  curing  room,.— Ibs.     No. 

Ibs.  milk  for  Kind  of  cheese  made  Ibs.  cheese  per 

one  Ib.  cheese.  100  Ibs.  milk 

Ibs.  cheese  for  one          No.  of  cheese  made.  Ibs.  cheese  for  one 

Ib.  fat  in  milk.  Ib.  total  solid 

If  comments  are  added  on  reverse  side  put  cross  here 

Work  and  observations  by - 

Arranged  by  W.  W.  Hall. 


188 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


| 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  189 

of  smell  and  taste.  Many  of  the  bad  flavors  in  the  cheese 
can  be  traced  to  the  poor  quality  of  the  milk.  One  of 
the  worst  qualities  in  milk  and  cheese  is  the  presence  of 
gas-producing  organisms.1  Any  milk  which  shows  gassy 
fermentation  should  be  rejected,  for  it  is  difficult  to  make 
cheese  from  this  and  at  best  there  will  be  a  large  loss 
during  the  manufacturing  process.  The  cheese  may  have 
a  bad  flavor  and  develop  "  pin-holes  "  and  in  extreme 
cases  may  puff  up  like  a  ball.  The  person  receiving  the 
milk  should  talk  to  the  farmers  or  dairy-men  about  the 
proper  care  of  the  utensils  and  milk.  He  must  see  that 
the  cans  are  kept  clean.  One  very  bad  practice  is  to 
deliver  milk  and  take  home  whey  in  the  same  cans.  The 
cans,  as  they  are  brought  back  from  the  cheese  factory 
full  of  whey,  are  often  left  in  the  barn  or  near  a  hog-pen 
until  the  whey  is  fed.  Unless  such  cans  are  emptied 
immediately  on  returning  to  the  farm  and  then  rinsed 
out  with  cold  water,  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded,  bad 
flavors  may  develop  in  the  cheese.  It  is  thought  that 
this  causes  "  fruity  "  or  sweet  flavor,  which  resembles  that 
of  fruits  such  as  raspberries,  strawberries  or  pineapples. 

194.  Ripening  the  milk.  —  A  slight  development  of 
acidity  is  required :  (a)  to  obtain  the  formation  of  a  firm 
curd;  and  (b)  to  establish  immediate  dominance  of  a 
desirable  type  of  lactic  organism  which  will  produce  the 
large  amount  of  acid  required  later  in  the  cheddaring 
process.  The  development  of  this  acidification  before 
the  addition  of  rennet  is  known  as  the  ripening  of  the 
milk.  The  extent  of  ripening  advised  by  different 

1  Russell,  H.  L.,  Cheese  as  affected  by  gas-producing  bacteria, 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1895,  pages  139-146. 

Marshall,  C.  E.,  Gassy  curd  and  cheese,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  183,  1900. 


190  THE   BOOK   OF    CHEESE 

schools  of  makers  has  varied  from  an  acidity  of  0.20  of 
1  per  cent  or  even  slightly  higher  percentage  titrated 
as  lactic  acid,  to  about  0.17  of  1  per  cent  as  now  preferred 
by  some  of  the  most  successful  groups  of  workers.  The 
ripeness  of  the  milk  can  also  be  determined  by  the  use  of 
the  rennet  test. 

The  milk  may  be  ripened  by  allowing  the  lactic  organisms 
already  present  in  the  milk  to  develop  naturally.  This 
requires  considerable  time  and  while  the  lactic  acid-forming 
bacteria  are  developing,  other  and  undesirable  fermenta- 
tions may  be  taking  place,  so  that  the  good  results  which 
should  follow  the  uninterrupted  development  of  the  lactic 
acid-forming  organisms  are  lost.  Starter  is  commonly  used 
to  produce  the  desired  ripening  of  the  milk.  (For  the 
preparation  of  starter  see  Chapter  IV.) 

Some  makers  put  the  starter  into  the  empty  vat  (Fig. 
31)  and  add  the  milk  as  it  is  received;  others  add  it  to 


FIG.  31.  — Steel  cheese  vat. 

the  total  volume  of  cold  milk  and  then  begin  to  heat  it. 
Whenever  the  starter  is  used,  it  should  be  strained  to 
remove  lumps.  These  lumps  might  cause  a  mottled 
color  in  the  cheese.  The  best  practice  calls  for  an  acidity 
or  a  rennet  test  of  the  mixed  milk  after  it  has  been 
brought  to  the  setting  temperature  in  the  vat.  With 
milk  tested  at  this  stage  and  the  volume  of  milk  in  the 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  191 

vat  known,  the  cheese-maker  is  able  to  calculate 
closely  the  amount  of  starter  needed.  When  the 
quantity  of  starter  to  use  is  in  doubt,  the  amount  added 
should  be  under  rather  than  over  the  estimate,  since  the 
need  of  more  can  be  determined  by  making  frequent  ren- 
net and  acid  tests  in  a  very  few  minutes  without  damage 
to  the  cheese.  If  too  much  starter  has  been  used,  acid 
or  sour  cheese  is  usually  obtained,  with  loss  in  market 
quality. 

An  over-development  of  acidity  at  any  stage  of  the  man- 
ufacturing process  affects  the  flavor,  body  and  texture, 
color  and  finish  of  the  cheese.  The  product  is  known  as 
a  sour  cheese,  and  can  usually  be  identified  by  its  sour 
taste  and  smell.  A  sour  cheese  while  curing  will  seldom 
develop  a  normal  Cheddar  flavor  and  the  texture  will 
be  hard  and  harsh  and  very  brittle.  The  body  will  not 
be  smooth  but  harsh  and  grainy.  The  over-development 
of  acid  will  show  by  fading  or  bleaching  the  color.  A 
sour  cheese  usually  leaks  whey  for  a  few  days  after  being 
placed  on  the  curing-room  shelves. 

Ripening  the  milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  cheese-making.  Proper  ripening  places  the  acid  fer- 
mentations under  the  control  of  the  cheese-maker  so 
that  he  may  know  what  results  will  follow  his  labors. 
The  operator  can  control  the  acidity  while  ripening  the 
milk,  but  after  the  rennet  is  added  all  control  of  the  acidity 
is  lost.  From  that  time,  the  moisture  must  be  regulated 
in  proportion  to  the  acidity. 

Before  setting,  the  milk  should  be  ripened  to  such  a 
point  as  to  leave  at  least  two  and  one-half  hours  from  the 
time  that  the  rennet  extract  is  added  until  the  acid  de- 
velopment has  reached  the  stage  at  which  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  whey.  By  the  acid  test  the  milk  may  vary 


192  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

from  0.16  to  0.18  of  1  per  cent,  but  no  definite  statement 
can  be  given  for  the  rennet  test.  This  can  be  determined 
only  by  comparison  from  day  to  day.  For  opera- 
tion of  rennet  test  see  Chapter  V.  During  this  period 
of  two  and  one-half  hours,  the  curd  is  formed,  then  cut, 
and  the  temperature  is  raised  from  84°  or  86°  F.  (the 
temperature  at  which  the  rennet  extract  is  added)  to  about 
98°  to  100°  F.  The  curd  must  be  kept  agitated  so  that 
the  particles  will  not  mat  together;  this  is  necessary  to 
obtain  sufficient  contraction  of  the  particles  of  curd  with 
the  proper  reduction  of  water-content.  If  the  milk 
becomes  too  ripe  (too  sour)  before  the  rennet  is  added, 
there  will  not  be  sufficient  time  for  these  steps  to  take 
place  naturally.  In  such  cases  special  means  are  re- 
quired to  firm  the  curd.  These  result  in  a  loss  of  both 
quality  and  quantity  of  cheese.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  milk  is  not  ripened,  but  the  rennet  extract  added, 
regardless  of  the  acid  development,  one  of  the  important 
natural  forces  for  expelling  the  moisture  is  lost.  The 
time  required  for  the  particles  of  curd  to  contract  is  much 
prolonged,  the  expulsion  of  whey  is  usually  inadequate  and 
the  curd  remains  in  a  soft  or  wet  condition.  Using  too 
much  starter  is  almost  equally  bad,  for  although  it  hastens 
the  making  process,  it  produces  a  sour  or  acid  cheese. 

195.  Setting  or  coagulating.  —  The  milk  for  Cheddar 
cheese-making  is  heated  to  86°  to  88°  F.  or  occasionally 
a  slightly  lower  temperature.  This  temperature  is  found 
by  experiment  to  give  the  texture  of  curd  most  favorable 
for  the  desired  results.  Although  some  cheese-makers 
work  as  low  as  84°  F.,  the  texture  of  such  curd  is  too  soft 
and  coagulates  too  slowly.  The  very  slight  change  of 
2°F.  produces  curd  which  coagulates  more  quickly  and 
is  tougher  and  firmer. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  193 

If  the  cheeses  are  to  be  colored,  the  color  should  be 
added  after  all  the  starter.  It  should  be  thoroughly 
and  evenly  mixed  with  the  milk  to  insure  an  even  color 
in  the  cheese.  If  the  color  is  added  before  the  starter, 
there  are  likely  to  be  white  specks  in  the  cheese,  on  account 
of  the  coagulated  casein  in  the  starter.  The  amount  of 
color  to  use  depends  on  the  tint  desired  in  the  cheese. 
It  varies  from  J  to  \  ounce  to  1000  pounds  of  milk  for  a 
light  straw  color  to  \\  to  2  ounces  for  1000  pounds  of 
milk  for  a  deep  red  color. 

Enough  rennet  should  be  used  to  produce  a  curd  firm 
enough  to  cut  in  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  minutes. 
The  necessary  amount  will  vary  with  the  strength  of  the 
rennet  extract  itself,  with  the  acidity,  the  temperature, 
the  nature  of  the  lot  of  milk,  and  with  the  individual 
aims  of  the  maker  in  which  he  adjusts  the  other  factors 
to  his  preferences  as  to  rapidity  of  rennet  action.  With 
the  usual  commercial  extract,  the  needed  amount  ranges 
from  2.5  to  4  ounces  for  1000  pounds  of  milk.  As  for  all 
varieties  of  cheese,  the  rennet  extract  should  be  diluted 
in  cold  water  at  about  one  part  rennet  to  forty  parts 
water  and  thoroughly  stirred  into  the  milk.  (See 
Chapter  V.) 

196.  Cutting.  —  The  object  of  cutting  is  to  obtain 
an  even  expulsion  of  the  moisture  from  the  curd.  The 
curd  is  cut  as  soon  as  it  becomes  firm  enough.  To 
determine  this,  various  tests  may  be  used.  Some  opera- 
tors test  it  by  pressing  it  away  from  the  side  of  the  vat, 
considering  it  ready  to  cut  when  it  separates  cleanly  from 
the  metal.  The  test  most  commonly  used  is  to  insert 
the  index  finger  obliquely  into  the  curd,  then  to  start 
to  split  the  curd  with  the  thumb  and  finally  to  raise  the 
finger  gently ;  if  ready  to  cut,  the  curd  will  split  cleanly 


194  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

over  the  finger  and  clear  whey  will  separate  to  fill  the 
opened  crack.  Another  arbitrary  but  more  or  less  satis- 
factory rule  is  that  the  time  from  adding  the  rennet  until 
cutting  should  be  two  and  one-half  times  that  from  the 
addition  of  rennet  until  the  first  sign  of  coagulation  is 
observed. 

The  condition  of  the  curd  itself  is  the  best  guide 
to  show  when  it  is  ready  to  cut.  The  condition  of 
the  curd  is  constantly  changing,  so  that  in  a  large  vat, 
if  the  cutting  is  not  begun  until  the  curd  is  in  the  best 
condition,  by  the  time  the  last  of  the  curd  is  cut  it  will  be 
too  hard  or  firm.  It  is  better  to  begin  while  the  curd 
is  a  trifle  too  soft  so  that  the  cutting  will  be  taking  place 
while  the  curd  is  at  the  proper  stage.  At  best  the  last 
of  the  curd  may  become  too  hard.  If  too  hard,  it  will 
break  ahead  of  the  knife  instead  of  cut.  Breaking 
causes  more  fat  loss  than  cutting  because  there  is  more 
surface  exposed  and  hence  more  fat  globules.  The 
softer  the  curd  when  cut,  the  quicker  and  easier  the 
moisture  can  be  expelled. 

If  the  curd  is  cut  when  soft,  care  must  be  exercised  not 
to  stir  it  too  hard  immediately  after  cutting.  Soft  curd 
breaks  very  easily.  When  the  curd  is  cut  soft  and  then 
stirred  vigorously,  there  is  a  larger  loss  of  fat  than 
when  the  curd  becomes  hard  before  it  is  cut. 

Two  knives  are  used  to  cut  the  curd.  (See  Fig.  11.) 
These  knives  may  have  either  wire  or  blades  for  cutting. 
The  space  between  the  wires  or  blades  varies  from  A  to  f 
inch.  Knives  used  should  have  blades  or  wires  close 
enough  together  to  cut  the  pieces  as  small  as  desired, 
without  a  second  cutting.  When  the  curd  has  to  be  cut  a 
second  time  it  usually  results  in  pieces  of  uneven  sizes,  be- 
cause the  pieces  already  cut  cannot  be  evenly  split  in  two. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 


195 


One  set  of  knives  has  horizontal  and  the  other  per- 
pendicular blades  or  wires.  The  curd  is  cut  the  long  way 
of  the  vat  with  the  horizontal  knife  and  lengthwise  and 
crosswise  with  the  perpendicular  knife  so  that  the  result 
is  small  cubes  or  oblongs  of  curd.  Some  cheese-makers 
prefer  to  use  one  knife  first  and  some  the  other,  but  the 
result  should  be  a  curd  cut  into  pieces  of  uniform  size. 
The  smaller  the  particles  of  curd  or  cubes  are  cut,  the 
quicker  the  curd  will  firm  up  or  cook.  If  not  cut  uniformly, 
the  changes  taking  place  later  in  the  curd  particles  will 
not  be  uniform,  —  the  small  pieces  will  be  hard  and  dry 
while  the  large  ones  will  be  soft  and  mushy. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  let  the  knife  cut  its  way  into 
the  curd  (Fig.  32).  If  the  knife  is  pushed  into  the  curd, 


FIG.  32.  — ^The  proper  way  to  put  the  knife  into  the  curd. 

it  will  break  it  and  cause  a  large  loss  of  fat.  The  same 
is  true  when  taking  the  knives  out  of  the  curd.  The  loss 
of  fat  due  to  cutting  is  very  similar  to  the  loss  of  sawdust 
when  sawing  a  board.  It  may  be  considered  a  necessary 
evil.  The  loss  due  to  cutting  is  about  0.3  of  1  per  cent 
of  fat  in  the  whey  and  the  loss  of  casein  about  0.1  of  1 
per  cent  in  the  whey. 

197.  Heating   or    "cooking"    the   curd. —  After   the 
curd  is  cut,  the  pieces  (cubes)  rapidly  settle  to  the  bottom 


196 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


FIG.  33.  —  Acme  curd  rak( 


of  the  vat  and  tend  to  mat  together.  To  prevent  this, 
the  curd  must  be  kept  stirred.  When  stirring  first  begins, 
the  curd  is  soft  and  very  readily  broken.  Some  cheese- 
makers  prefer  to  stir  by  hand  for  the  first  few  minutes 

after  cutting,  while 
the  curd  is  soft. 
The  importance  of 
careful  handling 
can  hardly  be  over- 
emphasized. No 
matter  how  well 
the  curd  has  been 
cut,  if  the  stirring 
is  performed  in  a 
careless  manner  in  the  early  stages,  it  will  be  broken  into 
uneven  sized  pieces  and  a  considerable  loss  of  fat  will 
result.  A  wooden  hayrake  or  a  McPherson  curd  agitator 
(Figs.  33,  34)  may  be  used  to  stir  the  curd.  Me- 
chanical curd  agitators  are  used  in  some  cheese  factories. 
There  are  several  makes. 
(See  Fig.  35.)  These 
agitators  save  much 
hand  labor,  although 
some  stirring  by  hand 
must  be  done  in  connec- 
tion with  them.  The 
mechanical  agitators  do 
not  stir  the  curd  in  the 
corners  of  the  vat ;  this  must  be  done  with  the  hand  rake. 
It  is  the  usual  practice  to  stir  the  curd  immediately  after 
cutting  for  five  to  ten  minutes  before  the  mechanical 
agitators  are  used.  This  is  necessary  to  give  the  curd  a 
slight  chance  to  firm  as  the  mechanical  agitators  tend  to 


FIG.  34.  —  McPherson  curd  agitator. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 


197 


198  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

break  it  up.  After  cutting,  a  thin  film  forms  on  each 
piece  of  curd.  This  film  holds  the  curd  particles,  especially 
the  fat.  Breaking  the  films  on  the  cubes  causes  loss  of 
fat.  If  lumps  form  at  the  early  stage,  by  matting  of  the 
curd  particles,  violent  stirring  is  required  to  separate 
them.  When  such  lumps  are  broken  up,  new  cleavage 
lines  are  formed  with  loss  of  fat,  because  the  original 
films  surrounding  the  soft  curd  fuse  so  firmly  that  the 
curd  cubes  do  not  separate  but  actually  break.  New 
surfaces  are  thus  formed  with  consequent  fat  loss.  Rapid 
shrinkage  with  expulsion  of  whey  takes  place  during  the 
first  few  minutes  of  gentle  agitation.  Before  any  heat  is 
applied  to  the  vat,  sufficient  whey  should  have  separated 
or  formed  to  float  each  piece  of  curd  separately.  This 
will  require  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  from  the  time  of  cutting. 
Thus  far  the  first  of  three  distinct  factors  which  expel 
the  moisture  from  the  curd  has  been  considered  :  (1)  the 
action  of  the  rennet;  (2)  the  development  of  the  lactic 
acid;  and  (3)  the  application  of  heat.  These  forces 
must  have  time  to  act  naturally.  If  heat  is  applied  too 
soon  after  the  curd  is  cut  or  if  the  temperature  is  raised 
too  rapidly,  it  causes  a  thick  film  to  form  on  the  pieces 
of  curd  which  interferes  with  the  escape  of  the  whey. 
The  outside  of  the  curd  becomes  firm  but  the  inside  re- 
mains very  soft.  A  curd  which  is  cooked  on  the  outside 
only  feels  firm  when  stirred  by  hand  in  the  whey,  but 
when  a  handful  is  squeezed  the  soft  centers  are  noticed. 
To  firm  such  curd  masses  requires  violent  stirring,  which 
will  break  the  thick  tough  film.  This  allows  the  mois- 
ture to  escape  and  also  increases  the  fat  loss.  The 
rapidity  of  heating  should  depend  on  the  condition  of 
the  curd  and  the  amount  of  acid  developed.  The  heat 
should  keep  pace  with  these.  When  ready  to  raise  the 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  199 

temperature,  the  least  amount  of  steam  possible  should 
be  allowed  to  pass  through  the  valve.  This  should 
raise  the  temperature  very  gradually.  If  heat  is  applied 
too  quickly  at  first,  it  will  cause  the  curd  to  lump.  A 
safe  rule  is  to  raise  the  temperature  one  degree  in  the 
first  five  minutes  after  the  steam  has  been  turned  on. 
The  heating  should  progress  slowly  until  the  whole  mass  of 
curd  in  the  vat  has  reached  a  temperature  of  90°  to  92°  F. 
The  usual  temperature  to  which  the  curd  is  heated  or 
cooked  is  98°  F.  to  100°  F.  The  lower  the  temperature 
that  can  be  used  and  properly  firm  the  curd,  the  better 
will  be  the  body  of  the  cheese.  If  the  curd  is  heated  too 
high,  it  will  become  hard,  which  causes  a  dry  hard 
"corky"  cheese.  After  this  temperature  has  been  reached, 
there  is  not  such  a  tendency  for  the  curd  particles  to 
stick  together  nor  are  they  so  easily  broken  in  stirring. 
It  should  require,  under  normal  conditions,  not  less  than 
thirty  to  forty-five  minutes,  from  the  time  <the  steam  is 
turned  on,  to  raise  temperature  of  the  curd  from  the 
setting  temperature  to  that  necessary  to  "  firm  "  the 
curd.  If  a  shorter  time  is  allowed  to  raise  the  temperature, 
the  curd  will  not  have  opportunity  to  contract  naturally. 
The  temperature  required  to  expel  the  moisture  properly 
varies  with  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  If  rich 
in  fat  (4.5  to  5.5  per  cent)  milk  requires  a  temperature  of 
98°  to  104°  F.  to  firm  the  curd,  while  the  same  result  can 
be  accomplished  with  milk  testing  3.0  to  3.5  per  cent  fat 
at  a  temperature  of  94°  to  96°  F.  A  higher  temperature 
is  needed  in  winter  than  in  summer  because  the  milk  is 
usually  richer  in  fat.  In  a  water- jacketed  vat,  allowance 
must  always  be  made  for  the  rise  in  temperature  due 
to  the  water  surrounding  it.  The  water  may  be  removed 
if  there  is  danger  of  the  temperature  going  too  high. 


200  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

However,  it  is  better  to  gauge  the  heat  so  that  the  water 
may  be  left,  as  this  helps  to  hold  the  curd  at  an  even 
temperature,  especially  in  cold  weather.  In  a  steam- 
heated  vat  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of  the  tempera- 
ture running  up. 

The  stirring  must  be  kept  up  after  the  steam  has  been 
turned  off  until  the  curd  has  reached  such  a  stage  of 
contraction  that  it  will  not  readily  pack  or  mat  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vat.  After  the  curd  reaches  this  stage  it 
may  be  allowed  to  settle  to  the  bottom  and  stirred  only 
occasionally  until  it  is  time  to  remove  the  whey.  If  the 
cheese  room  is  not  warm  and  there  is  danger  of  the  curd 
cooling,  a  cover  should  be  placed  on  the  vat.  The  curd 
should  not  be  allowed  to  settle  for  more  than  fifteen 
minutes  without  stirring  to  keep  each  piece  separate. 
This  is  necessary  to  obtain  uniform  contraction  of  all 
curd  masses. 

198.  Removing  the  whey.  —  To  permit  the  normal 
changes  in  the  curd  to  take  place  naturally,  two  and  one- 
half  hours  from  the  time  the  rennet  extract  is  added  is 
ordinarily  required  before  the  whey  is  drawn.  The  time 
of  removing  the  whey  is  determined  by  two  factors  :  one, 
the  acid  development,  and  the  other,  th*e  firmness  of  the 
curd.  For  the  best  results,  it  is  better  to  have  the  firmness 
of  the  curd  a  trifle  ahead  of  the  acid  development.  When 
the  proper  acid  development  has  been  reached,  the  whey 
must  be  removed,  regardless  of  the  firmness  of  the  curd. 
If  the  curd  has  not  become  firm  enough  by  natural  forces, 
when  the  acid  development  has  reached  the  proper  stage 
to  remove  the  whey,  it  must  be  firmed  by  other  means. 
If  it  is  not  firm  enough,  either  by  natural  or  artificial 
means,  when  the  whey  is  removed,  a  sour  cheese  is 
the  result.  The  acid  development  should  not  be  al- 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  201 

lowed  to  go  beyond  0.16  to  0.19  of  1  per  cent  acidity  in 
the  whey  by  the  acid  test  or  TS  to  J  of  an  inch  of  acid 
on  the  hot-iron  test,  before  the  whey  is  removed. 

199.  Hot-iron  test.1  —  This  test  is  employed  to  determine 
the  amount  of  acid  in  the  curd.     A  piece  of  iron,  such  as 
an  iron  pipe  two  feet  long,  is  heated  in  the  fire  to  proper 
temperature.     If  the  iron  is  too  hot  it  will  burn   the 
curd,  and  if  not  hot  enough  the  curd  will  not  stick  to 
the  iron.     When  hot,  it  is  taken  from  the  fire  and  wiped 
clean  with  a  cloth.     A  handful  of  curd  is  taken  from  the 
vat  and  squeezed  dry,  either  in  the  hand  or  in  a  cloth. 
This  curd  is  carefully  pressed  against  the  hot  iron  and 
drawn  away.     If  the  iron  is  at  the  right  temperature  and 
the  curd  has  sufficient  acid  development,  the  curd  will  stick 
to  the  iron  and  when  pulled  away  will  form  fine  threads. 
The  length  of  these  threads  determines  the  amount  of 
acid    in    the    curd.     The    acid    is  usually  spoken  of  in 
terms  of  the    length  of   threads,  as  J  inch  of  acid,  J 
inch    of    acid    and    the    like.     The    curd   must  have  a 
slight  development  of  acid  before  it   will   stick  to  the 
iron.     This    test     takes     advantage    of     the     peculiar 
properties 2  of  curd  which  are  produced  by  the  action 
of  the  acid  on  the  casein. 

200.  Firmness  of  the  ctird.  —  The  cheese-maker  must 
be  able  to  judge  the  firmness  of  the  curd  by  physical 
examination.     The  particles  of  curd  should  have  shrunken 
to  about  one-half  their  original  size  and  should  be  of 
uniform  consistency  throughout;    they  should  not  have 

1  S.  M.  Babcock,  Hot  iron  test  of  cheese  curd,  Wis.  Exp. 
Sta.  Kept.  1895,  pages  133-134. 

2  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  A  study  of  some  of  the 
salts  formed  by  casein  and  paracasein  with  acids,  their  relation 
to  American  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.   (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
214,  1902. 


202 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


any  soft  centers.  The  curd  should  be  firm  and  springy. 
When  a  double  handful  is  pressed  and  suddenly  released, 
the  curd  particles  should  spring  apart.  The  curd  should 
have  a  "  shotty  "  feeling  when  in  the  whey.  If  the  curd 
has  attained  the  proper  firmness,  and  the  acid  has  not 
reached  the  correct  stage  to  remove  the  whey,  it  may 
be  left  in  the  whey  until  sufficient  acid  development 
has  been  attained.  This  is  liable  to  cause  the  curd  to 
become  too  firm  and  to  result  in  a  hard  dry  cheese.  If 

there  is  no  evidence  of 
the  presence  of  undesir- 
able organisms,  such  as 
bad  odors,  or  gas  holes 
in  the  curd,  it  is  better 
to  remove  the  whey  and 
develop  the  acid  when 
the  curd  is  in  the  "pack." 
The  pack  refers  to  the 
first  piling  of  the  curd. 

The  whey  may  be  re- 
moved either  by  means 
of  a  faucet  or  gate  in  the 
vat  or  by  a  siphon  (Fig. 
36).  With  either  form 

of  removal  a  whey-strainer  (Fig.  37)  should  be  used  to 
prevent  loss  of  curd  particles.  It  requires  considerable 
time  for  the  whey  to  escape  from  a  large  vat.  After  the 
curd  has  been  heated  to  the  proper  temperature,  it  is 
well  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  whey.  In  doing  this  the 
surface  of  the  whey  should  not  be  drawn  down  quite  to 
the  top  of  the  curd.  When  ready,  the  remaining  whey 
can  be  quickly  removed. 
If  it  is  decided  that  the  curd  is  not  firm  enough,  when 


FIG.  36.  —  Whey  siphon  with 
strainer. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING 


203 


the  whey  is  drawn  down  to  the  surface  of  the  curd  and 
the  acid  has  developed  sufficiently,  the  curd  should  be 
firmed  up  in  the  whey  by  stirring  it  vigorously  by  hand 
before  the  remainder  of  the  whey  is  removed.  This  is 
commonly  called  "hand  stirring."  This  difficulty  results 
either  from  the  use  of  too  much 
starter  or  from  holding  the  milk 
until  too  much  acid  develop- 
ment has  taken  place  before 
adding  the  rennet.  Hand  stir- 
ring accomplishes  what  natural 
forces  would  accomplish  if 
given  sufficient  time.  If  the 
curd  does  not  firm  naturally 
in  the  whey,  there  is  a  large 
loss  of  fat  and  other  solids,  be- 
cause the  pieces  of  curd  will 
have  to  be  broken  up  to  allow 
the  water  to  escape  from  the 
soft  centers  of  these  masses. 
This  loss  can  usually  be  re- 
duced by  firming  the  curd  in 
the  whey  or  adding  water 
rather  than  by  stirring  without 
either  water  or  whey.  If  the 
curd  is  not  properly  firmed,  it 
carries  extra  whey  into  the 
cheese.  With  the  increase  in  whey,  the  amount  of  milk- 
sugar  carried  into  the  cheese  increases.  This  extra  milk- 
sugar  attacked  by  bacteria  produces  an  excess  of  lactic  acid, 
which  results  in  "  sour  "  cheeses.  This  explains  why  the 
curd  is  placed  beyond  the  danger  of  over-development 
of  acid  by  removing  so  large  a  portion  of  the  whey. 


FIG.  37.  —  Whey  strainer  with 
spout  to  fit  into  the  gate  in 
the  vat. 


204  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

If  the  curd  is  properly  firmed  in  the  whey  and  the  whey 
is  removed  before  too  much  acid  has  developed,  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  a  sour  cheese. 

201.  Gathering  the  curd  together.  —  Before  the  last 
of  the  whey  has  been  removed,  the  curd  should  be  pushed 
back  from  the  faucet  into  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
vat  and  spread  in  an  even  layer.     This  layer  should  be 
six  to  eight  inches  thick.     The  curd  can  be  pushed  back 
with  the  rake  or  a  board  which  will  fit  crosswise  in  the 
vat,  in  which  are  many  holes.    As  soon  as  the  whey  has 
been  removed  so  that  there  is  not  enough  to  wash  the 
curd  into  the  lower  part  of  the  vat,  the  vat  should  be 
tilted  and  a  ditch  eight  to  ten  inches  wide  cut  in  the  curd 
through  the  center.     The  curd  from  the  ditch  should 
be  removed  to  either  side  and  spread  evenly.     As  soon 
as  all  the  whey  has  been  removed,  the  pieces  of  curd  scat- 
tered about  in  the  vat  should  be  gathered  up  and  placed 
with  the  remainder. 

In  some  factories,  instead  of  matting  the  curd  in  the 
vat,  a  curd  sink  is  used.  This  is  a  wooden  receptacle 
about  the  size  of  the  vat  but  not  so  deep,  with  a  slatted 
false  bottom.  It  is  fitted  with  castors  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  moved  about.  A  cloth  is  placed  in  the  sink 
and  the  curd  and  whey  are  dipped  upon  the  cloth.  The 
whey  escapes  very  rapidly  through  the  cloth.  The  curd 
sink  is  an  advantage  in  those  cases  in  which  it  is  de- 
sirable to  remove  the  whey  from  the  curd  quickly,  such 
as  high  acid  curds  which  have  to  be  hand  stirred  to  firm 
the  curd.  The  disadvantage  lies  in  the  work  required 
to  keep  the  sink  and  the  large  cloth  clean. 

202.  Matting  or  cheddaring  is  the  distinctive  feature 
of  the  Cheddar  process.     It  is  the  piling  and  matting 
of  the  curd.     Whether  the  curd  is  matted  in  the  vat 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  205 

or  in  the  curd  sink,  the  process  is  practically  the  same. 
The  object  of  cheddaring  is  three-fold  :  (1)  to  control  the 
incorporation  of  moisture;  (2)  to  control  undesirable 
ferments,  if  present  in  the  curd;  (3)  to  develop  the 
texture  desired  in  the  cheeses. 

After  the  curd  in  the  vat  has  become  matted  so  that 
the  particles  stick  together,  the  masses  on  either  side  of 
the  central  channel  are  cut  crosswise  into  strips  with  a 
cheese  knife  (Fig.  38).  The  width  of  the  strip  depends 
on  the  water-content  of  the  curd  at  this  stage.  The 
more  water,  the  smaller  should  be  the  pieces  of  curd. 
This  allows  the  whey  to  drain  away  much  more  rapidly. 
As  soon  as  the  strips  of  curd  are  cut,  they  should  be  turned 
over  or  stood  on  edge.  A  drain  should  be  left  along  the 
middle  line  of  the 
vat  and  on  each 
side.  This  permits 

.  FIG.  38.  —  A  cheese  knife. 

the   whey    to   run 

away  freely.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  outlet  is  dammed 
up,  the  curd  may  become  "  whey-soaked/'  This  pro- 
duces a  soft  mushy  cheese  which  sometimes  is  "acidy" 
or  sour.  After  the  curd  is  turned  each  time,  all  crumbs 
of  curd  broken  off  should  be  brushed  underneath  the 
masses  of  curd  so  that  they  will  mat  with  it.  They 
should  never  be  placed  on  top  of  the  curd  because 
they  will  not  unite  but  will  become  dry  and  hard.  If 
the  crumbs  are  not  kept  brushed  up,  they  become  dry 
and  will  cause  an  open  textured  granular  cheese  and 
possibly  lumps  in  the  cheese.  After  the  pieces  of  curd 
have  been  turned  several  times,  and  the  whey  has  fairly 
completely  drained  away,  they  may  be  piled  first  two 
deep,  then  three  deep  and  so  on,  the  depth  of  the  piling 
being  gauged  by  the  softness  or  amount  of  water  in  the 


206  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

curd  and  the  temperature.  The  higher  the  curd  is  piled, 
the  more  water  it  will  retain  (assimilate),  so  that  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  curd  is  regulated  by  the  size 
of  the  pieces  into  which  it  is  cut  and  the  rapidity  and 
depth  to  which  it  is  piled. 

The  curd  should  not  be  left  too  long  from  the  time  it 
is  turned  until  it  is  turned  again.  This  period  is  usually 
about  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  moister  the  curd,  the 
more  often  it  should  be  turned.  In  turning,  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  ends  at  the  same  temperature  as 
the  remainder.  This  can  be  done  by  piling  them  inside, 
thereby  keeping  them  warm.  There  is  a  tendency  for 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  of  curd  to  remain  granular  and  so 
cause  an  open-textured  cheese. 

During  the  cheddaring  process,  the  temperature  should 
be  reduced  uniformly  and  gradually.  If  there  is  danger 
of  the  curd  becoming  too  cold,  the  vat  should  be  covered 
and  a  pail  of  hot  water  may  be  placed  inside,  if  it  is  deemed 
necessary.  The  temperature  of  the  curd  should  not  be 
allowed  to  go  below  85°  to  90°  F.  If  kept  too  warm,  the 
curd  will  become  soft  and  plastic,  and  if  too  cold,  it  will 
not  mat  together. 

While  the  curd  is  being  turned  and  piled,  its  physical 
properties  are  changing.  The  acid  develops.  When 
the  cheddaring  process  is  completed,  the  curd  should  be 
elastic,  smooth  and  fibrous.  The  curd  should  have  the 
close  meaty  texture  desired  in  the  cheese.  If  this  step 
in  the  process  is  neglected,  defects  may  appear  later  in 
the  body,  texture  and  flavor  of  the  cheese.  Attempts 
to  pile  the  curd  too  fast  result  in  a  soft,  mushy,  open-tex- 
tured product.  Such  cheese  has  mechanical  holes,  in 
which  moisture  collects,  and  so  is  likely  to  cause  rot 
while  curing. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE-MAKING  207 

If  gas  is  detected  either  before  or  during  the  cheddaring 
process,  the  curd  should  be  piled  until  the  gas  holes  are 
no  longer  round  but  flat.  If  the  gas  holes  are  not  flattened 
or  obliterated  during  this  process,  the  cheeses  will  be 
very  liable  to  puff  on  the  shelves  in  the  curing-room. 
The  curd  should  be  handled  until  the  gas  holes  flatten 
out  evenly,  although  this  may  require  considerable  time. 
At  best,  gassy  curd  will  never  produce  the  highest  grade  of 
cheese. 

Cheddaring  or  piling  the  curd  is  not  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  most  cheese-makers.  Because  the  moisture 
contains  the  milk-sugar,  there  is  danger  of  having  so  much 
moisture  present  in  the  cheese  that  it  will  become  sour 
from  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid-forming  bacteria  on  the 
milk-sugar.  A  cheese  may  be  sweet  when  made  and  later 
become  sour  because  it  contains  too  much  moisture  or 
milk-sugar.  This  is  known  as  "shelf  souring."  For  the 
proper  cheddaring  of  a  curd,  it  is  necessary  that  it  be 
properly  firmed  in  the  whey.  If  the  moisture  is  not  evenly 
incorporated,  the  cheese  will  have  a  mottled  color.  The 
pieces  that  have  the  more  moisture  will  be  lighter 
colored.  If  the  proper  amount  of  moisture  is  not  incor- 
porated, the  cheese  will  be  dry  and  hard,  and  if  too  much, 
soft  and  pasty. 

203.  Milling  the  curd.  —  The  large  pieces  formed  by 
the  cheddaring  process  must  be  cut  into  small  ones  before 
the  curd  can  be  easily  put  into  the  hoop.  This  is  called 
"  milling."  Properly  milled  curd  can  be  salted  evenly, 
cools  more  quickly  and  uniformly  and  can  be  distributed 
evenly  in  the  hoops. 

The  proper  time  to  "  mill  "  the  curd  is  determined  by 
its  physical  condition.  Some  curds  will  cheddar  much 
more  rapidly  than  others,  hence  no  definite  length  of  time 


208  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

can  be  given.  Curd,  "when  ready  to  mill,  should  have  a 
fibrous  texture  somewhat  like  the  white  meat  of  a  chicken 
breast.  The  pieces  of  curd  should  split  very  easily. 
When  cut,  the  curd  should  show  a  close,  solid,  smooth 
interior.  The  amount  of  lactic  acid  developed  may  vary 
within  rather  wide  limits.  The  hot  iron  may  show 


IT 

FIG.  39.  —  Gosselin  curd-mill. 

strings  |  to  1  inch  long.  The  acidity  (by  titration  of  the 
freshly  separating  whey)  may  be  0.45  to  0.65  of  1  per  cent. 
If  the  curd  has  been  properly  made,  that  is,  firmed  up  in 
the  whey  with  the  proper  acidity  so  far,  acid  develop- 
ment during  the  cheddaring  process  will  take  care  of  itself. 
The  physical  condition  remains  the  principal  means  of 
determining  the  time  when  the  curd  should  be  milled. 


FIG.  40.  —  Barnard  curd-mill. 

There  are  many  kinds  and  styles  of  curd-mills  on  the 
market.  Gosselin,  Barnard,  Pohl,  Junker,  Victor, 
Harris  are  well-known  kinds  (Figs.  39—42).  Some  are 
hand,  others  power  mills.  Some  of  these  tear  the  curd 
into  pieces  of  unequal  size,  others  cut  it  into  uniform 
pieces.  A  mill  that  will  do  the  work  with  the  least 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING 


209 


possible    pressure    on    the    curd   and  which  will  cut  it 
into     small     uniform-sized    pieces    is    most    desirable. 


FIG.  41.  —  Junker  curd-mill. 

The  ideal  mill  should  release  the  least  fat  and  leave 
the  curd  in  the  best  condition  to  receive  the  salt.  It 
is  impossible  to  run  curd  through  any  mill  without 


FIG.  42. —  Harris  curd-mill. 


exposing  some  fat  on  the  freshly  cut  surfaces,  and  if  the 
curd  is  put  under  pressure,  more  fat  will  be  pressed  out 
and  lost.  Cutting  in  the  mill,  like  cutting  the  curd  after 


210  THE  BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

coagulation  by  rennet,  may  be  called  a  necessary  evil. 
There  is  an  unavoidable  mechanical  loss  which  may  be 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  mill  used.  If  the  curd 
has  been  properly  handled  so  that  the  water  in  it  has 
become  thoroughly  assimilated  (properly  incorporated), 
this  loss  will  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  If  the  curd 
contains  free  moisture  and  many  of  the  particles  have 
soft  interiors,  a  stream  of  white  whey  will  run  down  the, 
vat  as  the  curd  masses  are  cut.  Some  samples  of  such 
white  whey  will  test  as  high  as  15  per  cent  fat.  This 
not  only  causes  a  loss  in  yield  but  in  quality  of  cheese, 
according  to  the  amount  of  fat  lost.  White  whey  is  an 
indication  of  loss  of  fat.  If  the  proper  amount  of 

moisture  is  present 
and  is  so  thoroughly 
incorporated  in  the 
curd  that  it  can  be 
separated  only  by 

FIG.  43.  —  A  curd  fork.  evaporation,  the  ideal 

condition     has     been 

reached.  While  milling,  the  cut  curd  should  be  stirred 
as  fast  as  milled  to  prevent  matting  again  and  to  allow 
odors  to  escape.  This  stirring  is  usually  performed  with 
a  curd  fork  (Fig.  43) .  At  the  same  time  the  temperature 
will  be  lowered.  The  milled  curd  should  be  spread  evenly 
over  the  upper  three-quarters  of  the  bottom  of  the  vat. 
The  flavor  of  the  curd  that  has  been  made  from  tainted 
milk  can  be  very  much  improved  by  stirring  at  this  time 
so  that  air  can  enter. 

A  gassy  curd,  which  has  been  held  until  the  holes  have 
become  flattened,  should  be  stirred  very  frequently  during 
this  stage  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape,  thereby  improving 
the  flavor. 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING'  211 

204.  Salting.  —  Salt  is  added  to  Cheddar  curd  for 
several  purposes:  (1)  for  its  taste;  (2)  to  aid  in  the 
removal  of  the  whey  and  to  harden  and  shrink  the  curd ; 
(3)  to  influence  the  fermentation  by  slowing  down  acidi- 
fication, checking  the  growth  of  unfavorable  organisms 
and  delaying  ripening.  The  salt  should  be  pure. 
It  should  be  coarse-grained,  because  the  large  grains 
dissolve  more  slowly  and  permit  its  absorption  to  a  much 
larger  extent  than  the  fine-grained  salt.  Salt  that 
dissolves  slowly  is,  therefore,  to  be  sought  for  this  purpose. 

The  following  factors  must  be  considered  in  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  salt  to  be  used  :  (1)  the  amount  of  curd 
from  the  milk ;  (2)  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  curd ; 
(3)  the  acidity  of  the  curd ;  (4)  the  particular  market 
form  of  cheese  desired.  The  custom  of  determining  the 
quantity  of  salt  by  the  weight  of  milk  is  an  inaccurate 
practice.  The  amount  of  salt  should  be  based  on  the 
amount  of  curd.  If  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk  is 
known,  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  the  amount  of  curd 
can  be  made.  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  weigh  the 
curd  before  salting,  but  this  is  not  practicable  or  necessary 
to  insure  a  good  quality  of  cheese.  The  amount  of  salt 
varies  from  1|  to  2j  pounds  of  salt  to  the  curd  from  each 
1000  pounds  of  milk. 

The  salt  should  not  be  added  directly  after  milling 
because,  at  that  time,  it  would  cause  a  large  loss  of  fat. 
After  milling  there  should  be  time  before  salting  for  the 
freshly  cut  surfaces  to  dry  or  "  heal  over."  When  first 
milled  the  curd  has  a  dry  harsh  feeling ;  when  ready  to 
salt  it  will  feel  soft  and  mellow  and  some  moisture  can 
usually  be  squeezed  out  easily.  Fifteen  to  twenty  minutes 
from  the  time  of  milling  are  required  before  the  curd  is 
ready  for  the  salt.  When  ready,  the  curd  should  be 


212 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


FIG.  44.  —  Wilson  press  hoop.  A,  com- 
plete hoop ;  B,  bottom  cover  with 
wide  flange  ;  C,  top  cover  with  narrow 
flange ;  D,  closed  body ;  E,  bandager. 


spread  evenly  over  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  The  salt 
should  be  carefully  weighed,  and  then  applied,  evenly,  over 
the  surface  of  the  curd,  in  two  or  three  applications.  The 
curd  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  after  each  application 

of  salt.  While  the  salt 
is  being  dissolved  and 
absorbed,  the  curd 
should  be  stirred  oc- 
casionally to  prevent 
lumps  from  forming. 

205'     Hooping         the 

CUfd.  — When  the  salt 
i  v  i  •  i  i 

has     become     dissolved 

and  the  curd  as  soft 
and  mellow  as  before  the  salt  was  added,  it  is  ready  to  be 
put  into  the  hoop.  Various  sized  hoops  may  be  used, 
depending  on  the  desired  size  of  the  cheese.  Two  types 
are  the  Wilson  and  the  Fraser  (Figs.  44,  45).  With 
either  type,  a  dampened  press  cloth  should  be  cut  just 
to  fit  the  bottom  of  the  hoop. 
A  starched  circle  may  or  may 
not  be  used ;  if  used,  it  should 
be  placed  on  top  of  the  press 
cloth.  The  bandage  now  com- 
monly employed  is  the  seamless 
one  which  comes  in  the  form 

of    a    tube   of    Various    sizes    for 

different     sized    hoops.      The 

lengths  of  bandage  cut  for  each 

hoop  or  cheese  depend  on  the  height  of  the  cheese  plus 

about  one  and  one-half  inches'  lap  on  each  end.     The 

bandage,  after  being  cut  the  desired  length,  is  placed 

on  the  part  of  the  hoop  made  to  hold  it,  so  that  it  is 


FIG.  45.  —  Fraser  press   hoop. 
A,  complete  hoop  ;  B,  band- 
D,  fi- 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING  213 

suspended  about  the  side  of  the  hoop  and  laps  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  on  the  bottom.  The  band- 
age should  be  free  from  ravelings  and  placed  squarely  in 
the  hoop. 

The  hoop  is  now  ready  to  fill  with  curd.  Enough  hoops 
should  be  prepared  to  hold  all  the  day's  curd  as  fast  as 
it  is  ready.  In  order  to  have  all  the  cheeses  as  nearly 
as  possible  of  the  same  size,  it  is  advisable  to  weigh  the 
curd  into  the  hoops.  The  curd  may  be  measured  into  the 
hoops,  but  this  is  not  so  accurate.  The  curd  may  be 
dipped  with  a  flat-sided  curd  pail 
or  a  curd  scoop  into  the  hoops 
(Fig.  46). 

206.  Pressing  the  curd.  —  The 
natural   changes   sought    in   the 
curd  require  a  period  of  at  least 
five  hours  between  the  time  of    FlG-  46'"~c^1d  scoop  and 
setting  (addition  of  the  rennet) 

and  the  pressing  of  the  curd.  Less  time  than  this  involves 
loss  in  yield  and  quality  of  the  cheese.  In  other  words, 
the  time  requirement  for  these  changes  cannot  be  ignored. 
The  object  of  pressing  is  not  primarily  to  remove  whey 
but  to  produce  the  physical  conditions  essential  to  ripen- 
ing the  cheese  in  a  mass  and  put  it  in  convenient  form 
for  handling.  The  whey  should  have  been  removed 
during  the  cooking  and  cheddaring.  When  ready  for 
the  press,  the  temperature  of  the  curd  should  be  about 
80°  to  85°  F. ;  it  should  be  brought  down  to  this  point 
during  the  milling,  salting  and  hooping  processes.  If  the 
curd  is  put  to  press  too  warm  or  too  cold,  the  following 
results  may  be  expected  : 

Too  high  temperature  during  pressing  produces  several 
faults,  as : 


214 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


(1)  Favors  the  development  of  undesirable  ferments. 

(2)  Causes  excessive  loss  of  fat. 

(3)  Gives  the  curd  pieces  a  greasy  surface  so  that  they 
will  not  readily  pass  into  a  compact  cheese.     If  a  cheese 
is  greasy,  the  bandages  will  not  stick. 

(4)  Favors  the  formation  of  mechanical  holes  in  the 
cheese. 

(5)  Causes  "  seamy  "  color  in  the  cheese  by  the  collec- 
tion of  fat  between  pieces  of  curd. 

Too  low  temperature  has  its  difficulties,  such  as : 

(1)  The  pieces  of  curd  will  not  fuse  together. 

(2)  The  rind  does  not  form  properly. 

(3)  It  appears  to  cause  mottled  cheese. 

The    commonly   used    gang    press   may   or   may   not 
have  an  arrangement  to  cause  continuous  pressure  to  be 


FIG.  47.  —  Continuous  pressure  gang  cheese-press. 

applied  to  the  cheese  (Figs.  47,  48).  When  fresh  cheeses 
are  first  placed  in  the  press,  the  pressure  should  be 
applied  very  gradually.  The  curd,  after  being  cut  through 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING 


215 


216  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

the  mill,  will  have  many  exposed  fat  globules.  A  heavy 
pressure  at  first  will  force  out  the  whey  set  free  by  the 
extracting  power  of  the  salt.  The  whey  will  carry  away 
the  exposed  fat  globules,  and  therefore  reduce  the  yield. 
As  soon  as  white  whey  starts  from  the  hoops,  the 
increased  application  of  the  pressure  should  be  stopped 
until  the  whey  regains  the  appearance  of  clear  brine. 
More  pressure  can  then  be  gradually  applied  until  full 
pressure  is  reached.  The  cheeses  should  remain  under 
heavy  pressure  for  one-half  to  one  hour,  when  they  should 
be  removed  from  the  press  and  dressed. 

207.  Dressing  the  cheese.  —  When  ready  to  dress 
the  cheese,  the  press  is  opened  and  the  hoops  turned  down. 
The  hoops  are  opened  so  that  the  bandages  can  be  lapped 
over  the  top  of  the  cheeses  about  1^  inches.  Before 
turning  a  bandage  down,  it  should  be  carefully  pulled  up 
to  remove  any  wrinkles  from  the  sides  of  the  cheese, 
but  not  hard  enough  to  pull  it  free  from  the  bottom. 
After  it  is  pulled  up,  the  bandage  should  be  lapped  over 
the  top  about  1|  inches,  and  if  not  even  should  be  trimmed 
with  a  sharp  knife.  It  should  then  be  sopped  down  with 
warm  water.  Plenty  of  warm  water  to  wet  the  bandage 
and  cloths  helps  to  form  a  good  rind.  If  starched  circles 
are  used,  one  should  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  cheese 
and  sopped  down  with  warm  water.  If  not,  the  press  cloth 
should  be  wrung  out  of  warm  water  and  put  on  smoothly, 
so  there  will  be  no  wrinkles.  The  hoop  is  then  put  to- 
gether and  placed  back  in  the  press  under  heavy  pressure 
for  twelve  to  eighteen  hours.  The  pressure  should  be 
sufficient  to  cause  the  curd  particles  to  unite  so  that  the 
surface  of  the  cheese  will  be  smooth.  The  next  day  the 
cheeses  are  taken  from  the  hoops  and  placed  in  the  curing- 
room.  If  they  do  not  come  out  of  the  hoop  easily,  they 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING  217 

may  be  loosened  by  cutting  between  the  sides  of  the  cheese 
and  the  hoop  with  a  knife.  A  special  thin-bladed  knife 
for  this  purpose  is  called  a  speed  knife  (Fig.  49).  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  bandage  when  trying  to 
loosen  the  cheese.  If  starched  circles  are  used,  the  press 
cloths  are  removed  from  the  cheese,  when  they  are  put 
in  the  curing-room.  If  neither  starched  circles  nor  press 
cloth  are  left  on  the  cheese  in  the  curing-room,  the  rind 
will  crack  on  account 
of  drying  out  on  the  ( 
exposed  surface.  This 

FIG.  49.  —  Speed  knife. 

allows  mold  and  in- 
sects to  enter  the  cheese.  The  flavor,  body  and  texture 
and  color  of  the  cheese  are  all  dependent  on  the  skill  of 
the  cheese-maker  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  from  which  it 
is  made.  The  finish  is  dependent  entirely  on  the  skill  and 
carefulness  of  the  maker.  An  operator  should  see  that 
the  cheese  press  is  straight  so  that  there  will  be  no 
crocked  cheese  and  that  the  bandage  and  press  cloths  are 
properly  put  on,  because  the  finish  or  appearance  of  the 
cheese  is  an  index  of  his  ability. 

208.  Handling  over-ripe  and  gassy  milk.  —  Because 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  over-ripe 1  or  gassy 
milk  2  into  cheese,  special  directions  or  precautions  are 
necessary.  The  best  way  is  to  reject  this  milk.  When 
it  is  necessary  to  make  it  into  cheese,  the  losses  are  much 

1  Decker,  J.  W.,  Cheesemaking  from  sour  milk,  Wis.  Exp. 
Sta.  Kept.  1898,  pages  42-44. 

2  Russell,  H.  L.,  Cheese  as  affected  by  gas  producing  bacteria, 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1895,  pages  139-146. 

Marshall,  C.  E.,  Gassy  curd  and  cheese,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  183,  1900. 

Moore,  V.  A.,  and  A.  R.  Ward,  Causes  of  tainted  cheese  curds, 
N.  Y.  (Cornell)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  158,  1899. 


218  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

more  than  with  normal  milk.  It  is  a  question  of  making 
as  good  a  cheese  as  possible,  and  the  subject  of  losses 
is  ignored. 

(1)  Over-ripe  milk.  —  The  fact  that  the  milk  is  over- 
ripe shows  that  there  is  already  too  much  acid  present. 
Every  effort  must  be  made  to  get  the  curd  as  firm  as  pos- 
sible in  the  whey  with  the  acid  development  as  low  as 
possible  or  before  the  acid  has  had  time  to  develop  any 
more  than  can  be  helped.  Although  the  milk  is  over-ripe, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  add  about  J  of  1  per  cent  of  starter  just 
before  the  rennet.  This  starter  will  not  begin  to  work  until 
the  curd  is  being  cheddared  and  it  will  help  the  flavor, 
especially  if  any  bad  fermentation  should  be  present. 

The  rennet  is  added  at  80°  F.,  as  this  lower  temperature 
tends  to  check  the  acid  development.  More  rennet  is  used, 
commonly  from  4  to  4|  ounces  to  1000  pounds  of  milk. 
This  gives  a  quicker  coagulation.  The  curd  is  cut  soft, 
as  this  tends  to  expel  the  moisture  more  quickly.  The 
heat  is  turned  on  sooner  after  cutting.  The  time  to  turn 
it  on  and  the  length  of  time  to  heat  are  determined  by 
the  amount  of  acid.  A  curd  should  not  be  heated  in  less 
than  fifteen  minutes.  If  the  curd  has  enough  acid  and 
has  not  begun  to  firm  up  much,  the  whey  should  be  drawn 
down  to  the  surface  of  the  curd,  water  the  temperature 
of  the  whey  and  curd  put  into  the  vat,  and  the  curd  firmed 
up  in  this  water.  The  water  washes  the  acid  out  of  the 
curd  and  because  of  the  lack  of  milk-sugar  checks  the 
acid  development. 

If  the  milk  is  not  so  ripe  and  the  curd  nearly  firm 
enough,  the  whey  may  be  drawn  off  and  the  curd  firmed 
up  by  hard  stirring  in  the  vat  or  sink.  The  curd  should 
not  be  pushed  back  enough  to  be  very  deep  or  thick 
when  ready  to  cheddar. 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING  219 

The  curd  should  be  cut  into  very  small  pieces  to  cheddar. 
The  smaller  the  pieces,  the  faster  the  whey  drains  away. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  curd  into  pieces  six 
inches  square.  The  pieces  should  not  be  piled  but  should  be 
turned  often  and  stood  on  edge  to  let  the  whey  drain  away 
and  sometimes  pressed  with  the  hands  to  force  the  whey  out. 
It  is  often  all  one  man  can  do  to  keep  the  curd  turned. 

The  curd  is  not  cheddared  very  long  but  is  milled  early 
so  that  the  whey  can  escape.  If  it  is  thought  that  the 
cheese  will  be  sour,  the  curd  should  be  washed  in  cold 
water  to  remove  the  acid  and  milk-sugar.  A  little  more 


FIG.  50.  —  At  the  left  is  a  regular  shaped,  close,  solid  textured  cheese; 
at  the  right  one  puffed  up  with  gas. 

salt  is  sometimes  used.  A  product  made  from  over-ripe 
milk,  no  matter  how  skillful  the  cheese-maker,  will  show 
traces  of  a  sour  cheese. 

(2)  Gassy  milk.  —  If  a  cheese-maker  knows  that  there 
is  "  gassy "  fermentation,  he  should  add  more  starter 
and  develop  more  acid  when  ripening  the  milk  to  try  to 
overcome  this.  There  are  different  kinds  of  gassy  fer- 
mentation. Some  produce  acid  and  some  do  not.  Some 
will  not  show  until  the  cheeses  have  been  on  the  curing- 
room  shelves  several  days.  Others  will  cause  the  curd 
to  float  in  the  whey.  Usually  the  gas  shows  as  pin-holes 
while  the  curd  is  being  cheddared. 


220 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


The  gas  causes  tiny  round  holes  in  the  cheese,  resulting 
in  the  cheese  swelling  or  puffing  out  of  shape  and  some- 
times breaking  open  (Figs.  50,  51).  The  only  time  to 
overcome  the  gas  is  during  the  cheddaring  process.  The 
curd  is  piled  and  repiled  until  the  holes  flatten  out.  This 
shows  that  the  gas-producing  organisms  have  weakened 
and  will  not  cause  any  more  holes.  Because  the  curd  has 


FIG.  51.  —  This  shows  the  same  cheeses  as  in  Fig.  50,  cut  open  to  show 
the  solid  and  gassy  texture. 

to  be  piled  so  many  times  and  so  long,  the  pieces  become 
very  thin.  The  curd  is  ready  to  mill  when  most  of  the 
holes  have  flattened.  After  milling,  the  curd  should  be 
stirred  and  aired  for  some  time  before  salting  to  allow  the 
bad  odor  to  escape. 

Because  of  the  high  acid  development,  it  often  happens 
that  the  cheese  will  not  be  gassy  but  will  be  sour.  At 
best  a  cheese  made  from  milk  having  gassy  fermentation 
will  have  a  bad  flavor.  The  quality  of  the  cheese  can  be 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE-MAKING  221 

no  better  than  that  of  the  milk  from  which  it  is  made, 
plus  the  skill  of  the  cheese-maker. 

209.  Qualities  of  Cheddar  cheese.  —  The  cheese  should 
be  neat,  clean  and  attractive.  If  unclean,  and  the  bandage 
not  put  on  the  cheese  properly,  it  shows  that  the  manu- 
facturer is  not  particular  to  keep  the  curing-room  shelves 
tidy  nor  careful  and  painstaking  in  dressing.  The 
cheese  should  not  be  lopsided  or  bulged.  When  cut, 
it  should  have  a  uniformly  colored  interior.  The  prin- 
cipal color  defects  are  too  high,  or  too  light  color, 
mottled  or  seamy.  The  texture  should  be  solid  and  close. 
A  common  defect  is  mechanical  holes  or  openings  and 
another  is  gas  pockets.  The  body  can  be  tested  by  rub- 
bing the  cheese  between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  It  should 
be  smooth  and  waxy  and  free  from  lumps.  It  should  rub 
down  like  cold  butter.  The  common  defects  are  graini- 
ness  and  lumpiness.  Graininess  may  be  caused  by  too 
much  acid  or  too  much  moisture  in  the  cheese.  Lumpi- 
ness is  due  to  uneven  curing.  If  too  much  moisture  is 
present,  the  body  will  be  soft  and  mushy ;  if  not  enough 
moisture,  the  body  will  be  hard  and  dry. 

The  cheese  should  have  a  pleasant,  clean,  mild  aroma 
and  the  characteristic  flavor  which  is  usually  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  nuts  and  so  is  spoken  of  as  a  nutty 
flavor. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


COMPOSITION    AND     YIELD    OF    CHEDDAR 
CHEESE 

So  many  factors  affect  the  composition  and  yield  of 
Cheddar  cheese  that  no  positive  or  exact  statement  can 
be  made  unless  other  facts  are  definitely  known.  The 
following  factors  affect  both  the  composition  and  yield : 

1.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  milk. 

2.  Amount  of  moisture  incorporated  into  the  cheese. 

3.  The  amount  of  solids  lost  in  cheese-making. 

4.  The  skill  of  the  cheese-maker. 

5.  The  bacterial-content  of  the  milk. 

210.  Composition  of  milk,  whey  and  cheese. — The 
following  Tables l  VI,  VII,  VIII,  which  are  the  average 
of  forty-eight  factories  for  the  season  of  1893,  show  the 
minimum,  maximum  and  average  composition : 

TABLE   VI 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  MILK 


MINIMUM 

MAXIMUM 

AVERAGE 

Water  
Total  solids 

86.28 
11  70 

88.30 
13  72 

87.28 
1272 

Fat  ...          .     . 

3.30 

4.40 

3.77 

Casein  

2.20 

2.85 

2.48 

Albumin 

052 

081 

0  69 

Sugar  and  ash,  etc.      .     . 

5.63 

5.89 

5.78 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  Investigations  relating  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  68,  1894. 

222 


COMPOSITION    OF    CHEDDAR    CHEESE       223 


TABLE   VII 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  WHEY 


MINIMUM 

MAXIMUM 

AVERAGE 

Water  

92.75 

93.28 

93.00 

Total  solids 

6  72 

725 

700 

Fat       

0.24 

0.51 

0.38 

Casein,  albumin      .     ... 
Sugar,  ash,  etc  

0.66 
5.63 

0.99 
5.86 

0.86 
5.76 

TABLE   VIII 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  GREEN  CHEESE 


MINIMUM 

MAXIMUM 

AVERAGE 

Water 

33  16 

43  89 

37  33 

Total  solids   .     . 

6684 

56  11 

6267 

Fat  
Casein 

30.00 
2080 

35.89 

2548 

33.41 
23  39 

Sugar,  ash,  etc  

4.86 

7.02 

5.89 

Table  VI  shows  the  minimum,  maximum  and  average 
composition  of  the  milk  and  Table  VIII  the  composi- 
tion of  the  cheese  made  from  that  milk.  The  average 
composition  of  the  cheese  in  Table  VIII  shows  that  it 
contains  37.33  per  cent  of  water.  The  tendency  to-day 
seems  to  be  for  a  softer  cheese  so  that  the  average  would 
probably  be  higher.  Table  VIII  also  shows  the  wide 
variation  in  the  composition  of  the  cheese.  The  moisture 
and  total  solids  both  vary  about  10  per  cent.  In  order  to 
judge  the  variation  in  composition,  one  must  know  the 


224 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


composition  of  the  milk  and  the  moisture-content  of  the 
cheese  and  then  only  a  very  inaccurate  estimate  of  the 
composition  of  the  cheese  can  be  formed. 

211.  Relation  of  fat  to  casein  in  normal  milk.  —  In 
order  to  understand  the  relation  of  the  composition  of  the 
milk  to  yield  of  cheese,  one  must  be  familiar  with  the  rela- 
tion of  the  fat  to  the  casein  in  normal  milk.  The  follow- 
ing table  1  shows  the  relation  of  fat  to  casein  in  normal 
milk: 

TABLE    IX 

SUMMARY  SHOWING  THE  RELATION  OP  FAT  TO  CASEIN 
IN  NORMAL  MILK 


GROUP 

PER  CENT 
OF  FAT  IN 
MILK 

NUMBER 

OF 

SAMPLES 

AVERAGE 
PER  CENT 
OF  FAT  IN 
EACH 
GROUP 

AVERAGE 
PER  CENT 
OF  CASEIN 
IN  EACH 
GROUP 

AVERAGE 
POUNDS  OF 
CASEIN  FOR 
EACH  POUND 
OF  FAT  IN 
MILK 

I     ... 

3.0-3.5 

22 

3.35 

2.20 

0.66 

II     ... 

3.5-4.0 

112 

3.72 

2.46 

0.66 

Ill     ... 

4.0-4.5 

78 

4.15 

2.70 

0.65 

IV     ... 

4.5^5.0 

16 

4.74 

3.05 

0.64 

V     ... 

5.0-5.25 

7 

5.13 

3.12 

0.61 

Table  IX  shows  that  the  pounds  of  casein  for  each 
pound  of  fat  are  not  constant  but  that  the  casein  does  not 
increase  in  proportion  to  the  fat  above  4.0  per  cent  of  fat 
in  the  milk. 

212.  Influence  of  fat  in  milk  on  yield  of  cheese.  — 
The  following  table  shows  the  influence  which  fat  in  the 
milk  has  on  the  yield  of  cheese : 1 


1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  Investigations  relating  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  62,  1893. 


COMPOSITION    OF    CHEDDAR    CHEESE        225 


TABLE    X 

SUMMARY  SHOWING  RELATION  OF  FAT  IN  MILK  TO  YIELD 
OF  CHEESE 


GROUP 

AVERAGE  PER 
CENT  OF  FAT  IN 
MILK 

POUNDS  OF  GREEN  CHEESE 
MADE  FROM  100  LB.  OF 
MILK 

POUNDS  OF 
GREEN  CHEESE 
MADE  FOR  1  LB. 
OF  FAT  IN  MILK 

I     ... 

3.35 

9.14 

2.73 

II     . 

3.72 

10.04 

2.73 

Ill     .      .      , 

4.15 

11.34 

2.70 

IV    ... 

4.74 

12.85 

2.71 

V     ... 

5.13 

13.62 

2.66 

Table  X  shows  that  as  the  fat  in  the  milk  increases, 
the  pounds  of  cheese  made  from  100  pounds  of  that  milk 
increases ;  but  the  amount  of  cheese  made  for  each  pound 
of  fat  in  the  milk  does  not  increase.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  pointed  out  in  Table  IX,  namely,  that  as  the  fat  in- 
creases in  the  milk  the  casein  does  not  increase  in  the  rich 
milk  in  proportion  to  the  fat.  From  Tables  IX  and  X 
this  conclusion  may  be  drawn :  that  as  the  percentage  of 
fat  increases  in  the  milk  the  more  cheese  can  be  made 
from  100  pounds  of  that  milk,  but  after  the  increase  in 
fat  gets  above  4  per  cent  the  amount  of  cheese  that  can 
be  made  for  each  pound  of  fat  in  the  milk  is  decreased 
because  the  casein  does  not  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
fat.  No  exact  statement  of  yield  can  be  made  without 
first  stating  the  moisture-content  of  the  cheese.  The 
losses  also  must  be  considered. 

Van  Slyke1  in  the  following  Table  XI  shows  the  effect 
of  the  fat-content  of  normal  milk  on  the  yield  of  cheese. 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  Methods  of  paying  for  milk  at  cheese 
factories,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  308,  1908. 
Q 


226 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


The  moisture-content  of  all  the  cheeses  is  reduced  to  a 
uniform  basis  of  37  per  cent.  (See  cut  showing  yield  of 
cheese,  Fig.  52.) 


FIG.  52.  —  The  figures  represent  the  relative  yield  of  cheese  containing 
different  percentages  of  fat,  but  all  have  a  uniform  content  of  37  per 
cent  water. 

TABLE   XI 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  FAT-CONTENT  OF 
NORMAL  MILK  ON  THE  YIELD  OF  CHEESE 


PER  CENT  OP  FAT 
IN  THE  MILK 

PER  CENT  OF 
CASEIN  IN 
THE  MILK 

AMOUNT  OP 
CHEESE  MADE 
FROM  100  LB. 
OF  MILK 

AMOUNT  op  CHEESE 
MADE  FOR  EACH 
POUND  OF  FAT 
IN  THE  MILK 

3.00 

2.10 

8.30 

2.77 

3.25 

2.20 

8.88 

2.73 

3.50 

2.30 

9.45 

2.70 

3.75 

2.40 

10.03 

2.67 

4.00 

2.50 

10.60 

2.65 

4.25 

2.60 

11.17 

2.63 

4.50 

2.70 

11.74 

2.61 

4.75 

2.80 

12.31 

2.59 

5.00 

2.90 

12.90 

2.58 

213.   Fat   loss   in   cheese-making.  —  The   amount   of 
solids  lost  in  the  whey  also  affects  the  yield.     The  follow- 


COMPOSITION    OF    CHEDDAR    CHEESE        227 


ing  table  gives  the  amount  of  fat  lost  in  whey  with  normal 
milk  containing  different  percentages  of  fat : 

TABLE   XII 

SUMMARY  SHOWING  AMOUNT  OF  FAT  IN  MILK  LOST  IN 
CHEESE-MAKING 


GROUP 

POUNDS  OF  FAT  IN 
100  LB.  OF  MILK 

POUNDS  OF  FAT  LOST 
IN  WHEY  FOB  100 
LB.  OF  MILS 

PER  CENT  OF  FAT 
IN  MILK  LOST 
IN  WHEY 

I     ... 

3  to  3.5 

0.32 

9.55 

II     ... 

3.5  to  4 

0.33 

8.33 

Ill     ... 

4  to  4.5 

0.32 

7.70 

IV    ... 

4.5  to  5 

0.28 

5.90 

V    ... 

5  to  5.25 

0.31 

6.00 

Table  XII  shows  that  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  whey 
is  approximately  the  same  for  milk  high  or  low  in  fat. 
But  the  milk  low  in  fat  loses  a  higher  percentage  of  the 
total  milk-fat  in  each  100  pounds  of  whey. 

214.  Effect  of  bacterial-content  of  milk  on  yield  of 
cheese.  —  The  bacterial-content x  of  the  milk  influences 
the  yield  by  affecting  both  the  moisture-content  and  the 
losses.  If  the  milk  is  sour  or  has  bad  fermentation,  the 
losses  will  be  increased  because  the  curd  cannot  be  care- 
fully handled,  and  the  moisture  cannot  be  incorporated 
to  the  extent  that  it  can  in  clean  milk,  without  injury 
to  the  quality.  The  proper  cooling  of  the  milk  in  one 
instance  increased  the  yield  0.3  pound  of  cheese  for  each 
100  pounds  of  milk.  The  more  moisture  that  can  be  in- 
corporated into  the  cheese  up  to  the  legal  limit,  the  greater 
the  yield. 

1  Farm  Bur.  Exchange,  St.  Lawrence  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  1,  no. 
9,  1915.  Cooling  milk  before  delivery  at  the  cheese  factory. 


228  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

215.   Factors  affecting  the  moisture-content  of  Cheddar. 
-The  amount  of  moisture   that    can  be    incorporated 
in  a  curd  depends  on  several  factors.1     The  following  in- 
crease the  moisture-content  control  of  the  cheese : 

1.  Cutting  the  curd  coarse. 

2.  High  setting  temperature. 

3.  Low  acid  in  the  curd  at  time  of  removing  whey. 

4.  Not  stirring  the  curd  with  the  hand  as  the  last  of 
the  whey  is  removed. 

5.  Slow  pressure. 

6.  High  piling  of  the  curd  in  the  cheddaring  process. 

7.  Small  amount  of  salt. 

8.  Holding  the  curd  at  low  temperature  after  the  whey 
is  removed. 

9.  Large  amount  of  rennet. 
10.  Cutting  the  curd  hard. 

The  following  factors  decrease  the  moisture-content  of 
the  cheese : 

1.  Fine  cutting. 

2.  Low  setting  temperature. 

3.  High  acid  in  the  curd  at  time  of  removing  the  whey. 

4.  Stirring  the  curd  with  the  hand  as  the  last  of  the 
whey  is  removed. 

5.  Fast  pressure. 

6.  Low  piling  of  the  curd  in  the  cheddaring  process. 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  et  aL,  Factors  controlling  the  moisture  con- 
tent of  cheese  curds,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Research  Bui.  7,  1910. 

Ont.  Agr.  College  and  Exp.  Farm  Kept.  1909,  pages  111- 
124,  Cheese  making  experiments. 

Ont.  Agr.  College  and  Exp.  Farm  Kept.  1910,  pages  111-128, 
Cheese  making  experiments. 

Fisk,  W.  W.,  A  study  of  some  factors  influencing  the  yield 
and  the  moisture  content  of  Cheddar  cheese,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta, 
Bui.  334,  pages  515-537,  1913. 


COMPOSITION    OF    CHEDDAR    CHEESE        229 

7.  Large  amount  of  salt. 

8.  Holding  the  curd  at  high  temperature  after  the 
whey  is  removed. 

9.  Small  amount  of  rennet. 
10.  Cutting  the  curd  soft. 

From  this  discussion,  it  is  evident  that  the  yield  of 
cheese  from  100  pounds  of  milk  increases  with  higher 
percentages  of  fat  and  casein  in  the  milk,  with  reduced 
losses  of  solids  during  manufacture,  with  the  absence  of 
undesirable  fermentations,  and  with  the  incorporation  of 
large  amounts  of  water. 

216.  Variations  of  the  Cheddar  process.  —  The  Cheddar 
process,  as  already  described,  is  widely  employed  in  cheese 
factories.     Many    varieties    are    found,    however,    and 
varietal  names  are  used  for  such  products.     A  whole 
series  of  these  forms  are  either  locally  or  widely  made  in 
England  and  taught  in  the  English  dairy  schools.     Some 
of  these  varieties  resemble  the  factory  Cheddar  product 
fairly  closely;    others  are  clearly  different  products.     A 
typical  series  of  the  variations  as  developed  in  America 
will  be  considered. 

In  the  commercial  trade  Cheddar  cheese  is  usually 
designated  by  some  name  which  indicates  its  size.  The 
size  of  the  cheese  is  determined  by  that  of  the  hoops. 
The  hoops  vary  both  in  diameter  and  height.  The 
table  on  the  following  page  shows  the  usual  sizes  of  the 
hoops  and  the  weight  and  name  applied  to  the  cheese. 

217.  Cheddar-type  cheese  from  pasteurized  milk.  - 
Sammis  and  Bruhn  l  have  described  a  variation  of  the 
Cheddar  process  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  making 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  and  A.  T.  Bruhn,  The  manufacture  of  cheese 
of  the  Cheddar  type  from  pasteurized  milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  165,  pages  1-95,  1913. 


230 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


cheese  from  pasteurized  milk.  Such  milk  curdles  in  very 
unsatisfactory  manner  unless  some  chemical  is  added  to 
compensate  for  the  salts  lost  and  to  offset  the  other 
changes  resulting  from  heat.  For  this  purpose,  they 
found  the  use  of  hydrochloric  acid  satisfactory. 

TABLE   XIII 

SIZE  OF  CHEESE  HOOPS,  WEIGHT,  AND  TERM  APPLIED  TO 
CHEESED 


DIAMETER  OP 
HOOP 

HEIGHT  op 
CHEESE 

WEIGHT  OF 
CHEESE 
POUNDS 

TERM  APPLIED  TO 
CHEESE 

6-7  in. 

7-8  in. 

9-11 

Young  America 

Tapers  5-7  in. 

10-14  in. 

10-16 

Long  Horn 

12-14  in. 

3MI  in- 

18-24 

Daisy  or  Picnic 

•  14-15|  in. 

4-6  in. 

30-40 

Twin  (two  in  same  box) 

14-16  in. 

4-7  in. 

35-40 

Flat 

13|-15  in. 

10-12  in. 

40-50 

Cheddar 

14-16  in. 

12-15  in. 

75-90 

Export 

"  The  acidulation  of  milk  with  hydrochloric  acid  after 
pasteurization  is  accomplished  without  difficulty  or  danger 
of  curdling  by  running  a  small  stream  of  the  acid,  of  normal 
concentration,  into  the  cooled  milk  as  it  flows  from  the 
continuous  pasteurizer  into  the  cheese  vat.  One  pound  of 
normal-strength  acid  is  sufficient  to  raise  100  pounds  of 
milk  from  0.16  per  cent  to  0.25  per  cent  acidity  (calcu- 
lated as  per  cent  of  lactic  acid).  The  amount  of  acid 
needed  each  day  to  bring  the  milk  up  to  0.25  per  cent 
acidity  is  read  from  a  table  or  calculated  from  the  weight 
of  the  milk  and  its  acidity,  determined  by  the  use  of 
Manns's  acid  test  (titration  with  tenth-normal  sodium 
hydrate  and  phenolphthalein) .  The  preparation  of  stand- 
ard-strength acid  in  carboy  lots  for  this  work  and  the 


COMPOSITION  OF   CHEDDAR   CHEESE         231 

acidulation  of  milk  present  no  great  difficulty  to  any  one 
who  is  able  to  handle  Manns's  acid  test  correctly. 

"  After  the  milk  is  pasteurized  and  acidulated  three- 
fourths  per  cent  of  first-class  starter  is  added  and  the  vat 
is  heated  to  85°.  It  is  set  with  rennet,  using  2  ounces 
of  rennet  per  thousand  pounds  of  milk,  so  that  the  milk 
begins  to  curdle  in  7  minutes  and  is  cut  with  three-eighth 
inch  knives  in  25  minutes.  All  portions  of  the  work 
after  adding  rennet  are  carried  out  in  an  unvarying  routine 
manner,  according  to  a  fixed-time  schedule  every  day. 
As  soon  as  the  rennet  has  been  added  the  cheese  maker 
is  able  to  calculate  the  exact  time  of  day  when  each  of  the 
succeeding  operations  should  be  performed,  and  the  work 
of  making  the  cheese  is  thus  simplified  and  systematized. 
It  is  possible  that  the  routine  process  here  described  may 
be  varied  somewhat  with  advantage  at  different  factories." 

This  cheese  usually  lacks  characteristic  Cheddar  flavor 
or  contains  it  in  very  mild  form.  It  therefore  satisfies 
only  those  who  seek  very  mild  flavored  products.  Efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  find  a  flavor  producing  substance 
or  organism  which  will  bring  the  flavor  of  this  product 
more  nearly  to  that  of  typical  Cheddar. 

218.  Club  cheese  is  known  by  a  variety  of  trade 
names.  It  is  made  from  Cheddar  cheese,  so  that  it  is 
especially  liked  by  persons  who  care  for  strong  Cheddar 
flavor.  It  has  a  soft  texture  so  that  it  spreads  easily, 
and  is  therefore  much  used  for  sandwiches.  Well-ripened 
or  old  Cheddar  cheese  is  ground  in  a  food  chopper.  The 
older  the  Cheddar,  the  stronger  will  be  the  flavor  of  the 
club  cheese.  Cheese  of  good  flavor  should  be  used.  In 
order  to  do  away  with  all  lumps  in  the  texture,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  run  the  mixed  cheese  through  the  food 
chopper  a  second  time.  While  all  lumps  must  be  worked 


232  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

out,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  work  the  cheese  so  much 
that  it  will  become  salvy  and  sticky. 

Usually  a  little  pepper  is  added,  to  give  the  cheese  a 
biting  taste.  Some  manufacturers  add  a  great  variety 
of  substances,  but  these  are  not  necessary  and  destroy 
the  flavor  of  the  cheese. 

Club  cheese  may  be  wrapped  in  tin-foil  or  put  up  in 
air-tight  glass  jars.  The  latter  practice,  while  more 
expensive,  has  the  advantage  of  making  the  cheese  keep 
longer;  but  for  local  trade  tin-foil  is  just  as  satisfactory 
as  glass.  In  filling  the  glass,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
leave  any  air  spaces  between  the  cheese  and  the  glass, 
as  this  is  likely  to  permit  the  cheese  to  mold.  A  glass  jar 
can  be  filled  and  air  spaces  prevented  by  first  smearing 
a  very  thin  layer  of  cheese  over  the  glass. 

219.  The  stirred-curd  or  granular  process.  —  The 
original  practice  as  brought  from  England  and  followed 
in  the  farm  dairies  before  the  development  of  the  factory 
system  is  now  known  variously  as  the  "  stirred-curd  " 
or  "  granular  curd  "  process.  With  the  introduction  of 
the  cheese  factory,  as  known  to-day,  this  system  was  re- 
placed by  the  Cheddar  cheese.  The  old  farm  process  is 
still  used  on  some  farms  and  in  a  few  factories.  As  the 
name  indicates,  the  curd  for  such  cheeses  is  kept  stirred 
so  that  it  remains  in  granular  condition  instead  of  being 
allowed  to  mat  as  in  the  Cheddar  process. 

The  early  steps  of  the  two  processes  are  identical.  They 
diverge  at  the  point  at  which  in  the  factory  Cheddar 
process  the  whey  is  drawn  and  the  curd  is  allowed  to  mat. 
In  some  factories  the  curd  and  part  of  the  whey  are  dipped 
into  a  curd  sink.  This  allows  the  whey  to  escape  more 
easily  and  quickly.  In  the  stirred-curd  process,  the 
pieces  of  curd  are  kept  separated  by  stirring  and  not 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE        233 

allowed  to  mat.  The  whey  is  drawn  off  and  the  stirring 
continued  by  hand.  After  stirring  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes,  the  curd  becomes  so  dry  as  not  to  mat  easily. 
As  soon  as  the  curd  has  reached  this  stage,  the  salt  is 
evenly  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  it.  More  salt  is  added 
than  in  the  Cheddar  process  because  the  curd  is  more 
moist  than  Cheddar  curd  at  the  time  of  salting.  The 
whey  freely  separating  carries  away  much  of  the  salt. 
The  quantity  of  salt  to  use  depends  on  the  amount  of 
whey  draining  from  the  curd.  After  salting,  the  curd  is 
allowed  to  cool,  with  occasional  stirring  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  lumps.  The  advantage  of  the  stirred-curd 
practice  lies  in  the  shorter  time  required  for  making 
cheese  and  in  the  greater  yield  due  to  increased  water-con- 
tent. It  has  several  disadvantages,  among  them  being : 
(1)  lack  of  control  of  undesirable  fermentation;  if  gas 
organisms  are  present,  the  cheeses  more  frequently  huff 
than  with  the  Cheddar  system;  (2)  there  is  more  fat 
lost  while  stirring  the  curd,  hence  quality  and  yield  suffer ; 
(3)  the  water  is  not  so  thoroughly  incorporated,  which 
more  frequently  results  in  mottled  cheeses;  (4)  the 
body  is  commonly  soft  and  "  weak,"  shows  mechanical 
holes,  and  cures  too  rapidly.  These  faults  are  closely 
correlated  with  the  presence  of  higher  percentages  of 
water  than  in  cheeses  made  by  the  Cheddar  process.  In 
other  words,  the  stirred-curd  process  usually  produces  a 
cheese  with  higher  water-content,  hence  more  subject 
to  the  development  of  unfavorable  fermentation  than  the 
Cheddar  cheeses. 

220.   California  Jack  cheese 1  is  very   similar   to  the 
stirred-curd  or  granular  process.     This  cheese  was  orig- 
inally made  in  Monterey  County  on  the  coast  of  Cali- 
1  New  York  Prod.  Review,  Vol.  34,  no.  2,  page  66. 


234  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

fornia,  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  in  small  quantities, 
but  after  it  was  found  to  sell  well  other  counties  started 
to  manufacture  it.  As  Monterey  was  the  first  county 
to  make  this  product,  it  was  named  "  Monterey  "  cheese. 
In  order  to  distinguish  the  cheese  made  in  other  counties 
from  this,  it  was  suggested  that  it  be  given  a  name  and, 
consequently,  it  was  called  "  Jack "  cheese.  This  has 
been  accepted  as  its  true  name.  The  cheese  is  made 
mostly  by  Portuguese  and  Italian-Swiss,  although  some 
of  the  best  of  the  variety  is  now  manufactured  near 
Modesto,  California. 

This  cheese  is  adapted  for  manufacture  on  small  dairy 
farms,  where  there  is  inexpensive  and  scanty  equip- 
ment. The  smaller  sizes  of  cheese  are  made  and  ripened 
quickly.  It  has  become  widely  used  in  California. 

The  cheese  is  made  every  morning,  from  evening's 
and  morning's  milk.  The  former  is  put  into  the  cheese 
vat  at  night,  and  morning's  milk  is  added  as  milking  is 
going  on.  When  the  milk  is  all  in  the  vat,  it  is  immedi- 
ately warmed  to  86°  to  88°  F.  and  rennet  extract  is  added 
(when  milk  has  0.2  to  0.21  of  1  per  cent  acidity)  at  the 
rate  of  6  to  8  ounces  to  1000  pounds  of  milk.  No  coloring 
matter  is  used.  It  is  ready  for  the  curd-knife  in  thirty  to 
thirty-five  minutes,  its  readiness  being  determined  the 
same  as  in  making  Cheddar  cheese.  The  curd  is  first  cut 
lengthwise  of  the  vat  with  the  horizontal  curd-knife  and 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  whey  rises  over  and  partly 
covers  the  curd,  when  it  is  cut  again  with  the  vertical 
curd-knife  crosswise  of  the  vat.  It  is  then  hand-stirred, 
gently  at  first,  and  the  stirring  is  finished  with  the  rake. 

Either  a  steam-heating  or  self-heating  vat  is  used  (the 
steam-heating  vat  is  preferred)  and  temperature  increased 
about  one  degree  in  five  minutes.  The  curd  is  heated  to 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE        235 

98°F.  in  winter,  and  to  105°  F.  to  1 10°  F.  in  summer.  After 
temperature  is  up,  it  is  stirred  occasionally  with  a  rake 
until  the  whey  is  drawn  at  0.14  to  0.15  of  1  per  cent 
acidity. 

The  curd  is  hand-stirred  as  soon  as  the  whey  is  nearly 
drained  off,  and  raked  to  each  side  of  the  vat  to  drain  more 
thoroughly,  when  it  is  quickly  stirred  again  to  keep  it 
from  lumping  or  matting.  Salt  is  now  added  at  the  rate 
of  ij  pounds  to  100  pounds  of  curd,  and  stirred  in  thor- 
oughly several  times.  During  the  salting  process,  cold 
water  is  allowed  to  run  under  the  vat,  the  hot  water  hav- 
ing been  run  off  previously. 

Curd  is  put  into  cloths  at  a  temperature  of  80°  to  85°  F. 
No  cheese  hoops  are  used.  Two  sets  of  press  cloths  are 
necessary ;  one  set  is  ready  to  use  while  the  other  is  still 
on  the  cheese  in  the  press.  These  press  cloths  are  about 
one  yard  square.  The  press  cloths  are  all  laid  out  evenly 
one  on  top  of  the  other,  as  many  as  there  are  cheeses. 
They  are  then  taken  together  and  spread  out  over  the 
top  of  a  large,  open  tin  milk-pail,  and  pushed  down  in 
the  center  to  the  bottom  of  the  pail,  with  the  edges  hang- 
ing over  the  top.  A  common  one-gallon  lard  pail  is  used 
to  measure  the  curd  into  the  press  cloths.  A  lard  pail 
full  will  make  a  cheese  weighing  six  and  one-half  pounds, 
which  is  the  popular  size.  After  a  pailful  has  been  put 
into  the  press  cloth,  the  four  corners  are  caught  up  with 
the  left  hand,  while  with  the  right  hand  the  curd  is  formed 
round  and  the  press  cloth  straightened  and  the  other 
corners  in  turn  taken  up.  The  press  cloth  is  now  taken 
up  tight  over  the  curd  with  the  left  hand,  while  the 
cheese  is  given  a  rolling  motion  on  the  table  with  the  right 
hand,  pressing  at  the  same  time  to  expel  some  of  the 
whey.  This  twists  the  press  cloth  tight  over  the  curd, 


236  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

where  it  is  tied  with  a  stout  string.  After  fixing  them 
all  (as  many  as  there  are  cheeses)  in  this  way,  they  are 
ready  for  the  press. 

The  cheeses  are  pressed  between  two  wooden  planks, 
12  inches  wide,  Ij  inches  thick,  by  whatever  length  is 
required  for  the  number  of  cheeses  to  be  pressed.  One 
plank  is  nailed  on  supports  at  a  convenient  height  from 
the  floor  on  a  little  slant  for  the  whey  to  drain  off  better. 
The  cheeses  in  the  press  cloths  are  placed  at  the  proper 
distance  apart  so  they  do  not  touch.  Then  the  other 
plank  is  put  squarely  over  the  top  of  the  cheese  and  levers 
about  four  feet  long  at  an  interval  of  five  feet  are  placed 
over  this  plank,  from  a  cleat  in  the  wall,  on  the  other  end 
of  which  is  placed  a  heavy  weight  of  about  100  pounds, 
which  acts  as  an  automatic  pressure.  The  cheeses  are 
left  in  the  press  until  the  next  morning,  when  they  are 
taken  out  and  put  on  the  shelves  in  the  curing-room. 
The  cheeses  have  no  bandage  or  covering,  and  do  not 
seem  to  crock,  and  they  form  a  very  good  rind. 

The  cheese  is  a  sweet  variety,  weighs  six  and  one-half 
pounds  cured  and  cures  in  about  three  weeks  ready  to 
ship,  and  sells  at  16  to  25  cents  a  pound  wholesale.  Most 
of  the  work  seems  to  lie  in  forming  and  rolling  the  curd  in 
press  cloths  before  pressing.  Trouble  is  experienced  by 
the  makers,  especially  in  warm  climates  in  summer,  in 
not  having  the  milk  at  a  uniform  acidity  when  rennet  is 
added.  Great  improvements  could  be  made  in  this  cheese 
by  using  an  acidimeter,  paraffining  and  curing  the  cheese 
in  an  even  temperature,  not  much  over  60°  F. 

Old  and  hard  Jack  cheese  is  also  employed  for  grat- 
ing and  cooking,  while  the  fresh  is  used  for  the  table, 

221.  The  washed-curd  process  has  been  developed 
in  recent  years  largely  in  the  state  of  New  York.  In 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE        237 

this  method,  a  regular  Cheddar  curd  is  made  up  to 
the  time  of  milling.  This  curd  is  washed  or  soaked  in 
cold  water  during  or  directly  after  milling.  The  theoreti- 
cal object  of  this  washing  is  to  carry  away  bad  flavors  and 
to  reduce  over-development  of  acidity  by  washing  away 
all  traces  of  whey.  However,  cheese-makers  soon  found 
that  it  increased  the  yield  and  this  led  some  to  carry  it 
to  extremes. 

After  the  curd  has  been  milled,  it  is  covered  with  cold 
water.  The  temperature  of  this  water  ranges  from  50°  F.  to 
70°  F.  The  curd  is  stirred  in  this  water  for  various  lengths 
of  time  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  cheese-maker. 
This  time  varies  from  five  minutes  to  one  hour.  Some- 
times the  vat  is  partly  filled  with  water  and  the  curd 
milled  directly  into  the  water.  This  process  has  certain 
advantages  and  disadvantages. 

The  advantages  are :  if  too  much  acid  has  developed 
in  the  curd,  this  washing  will  reduce  it  so  that  the  cheese 
will  not  be  sour.  Sometimes  when  bad  flavors  are  present 
in  the  curd,  washing  will  tend  to  overcome  or  remove 
them.  Its  disadvantages  are :  the  larger  yield  due  to 
excessive  soaking  tempts  the  makers  to  soak  curd  beyond 
the  time  needed  to  relieve  the  initially  sour  condition. 
Curd  soaked  in  this  way  produces  cheeses  containing 
percentages  of  water  so  high  as  to  lower  their  quality. 
This  increases  the  yield  sometimes  as  much  as  3  to  5 
per  cent.  Such  a  cheese  is  very  soft  in  texture  and 
does  not  cure  like  a  Cheddar  cheese  which  has  not  been 
washed.  Part  of  the  lactic  acid,  milk-sugar l  and  the 

1  Babcock,  S.  M.,  et  al.,  Cheese  ripening  as  influenced  by  sugar, 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1901,  pages  162-167. 

E.  G.  Hastings,  et  aZ.,  Studies  on  the  factors  concerned  in  the 
ripening  of  Cheddar  cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Research  Bui.  25. 


238  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

inorganic  salts  are  removed  by  this  washing.  A  washed- 
curd  cheese  will  sometimes  rot,  due  to  the  activity  of  the 
putrefactive  bacteria,  and  to  the  lack  of  the  restraining 
effect  of  the  lactic  acid-forming  bacteria.  Some  washed- 
curd  cheeses  are  so  soft  that  they  will  not  retain  their 
normal  shape. 

A  washed-curd  cheese  is  never  sour  because  the  milk- 
sugar  and  lactic  acid  have  been  removed  by  washing. 

222.  English  dairy  cheese.  —  In  some  localities  cheeses 
are  still  made  on  the  farms.     These  are  mostly  produced 
after  the  stirred-curd  process,  hence  are  soft-bodied  and 
open-textured.     They  usually  weigh  ten  to  twelve  pounds 
and  are  three  to  four  inches  thick  and  twelve  inches  in 
diameter. 

223.  Pineapple    cheese.  —  This    variety    derives    its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  cheeses  are  made  in  about 
the  size  and  shape  of  a  pineapple.     The  curd  is  made 
after    the   Cheddar  process  from  either  whole  milk  or 
partly  skimmed  milk.     It    is  pressed  in    molds  shaped 
like  a  pineapple.     The  cheeses  are  then  hung  in   nets 
to  give  the  checked  appearance  on  the  surface.     They  are 
rubbed  with  linseed  oil  to  prevent  the  surface  cracking, 
and  finally  are  shellacked. 

224.  Ley  den.  —  Among  specialties,  a  cheese  called  Ley- 
den  originating  in  Holland  is  made  in  Michigan  and  New 
York.     This  is  a  part  skim  cheese  heavily  spiced  with 
caraway  seed.     The  ripe  cheese  is  colored  red  as  it  goes 
to  market. 

225.  Cheddar  cheese  with  pimientos.  —  Recently  some 
Cheddar     cheeses    have     been    made    with    pimientos 
added.     This  gives  a  mixture  of  characteristic  Cheddar 
and  pimiento  flavors,  which  seems  to  be  desired  by  some 
persons.     An  ordinary  Cheddar  curd   is  made  and  the 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE         239 

pimientos  added  just  before  salting.  The  pimientos  are 
ground  rather  coarsely  and  then  added  to  the  curd  to- 
gether with  the  liquid  which  was  with  the  pimientos  in  the 
can.  The  pimiento  should  be  thoroughly  and  evenly 
mixed  with  the  curd  to  insure  a  uniform  distribution  and 
mottled  color  in  the  cheese.  The  salt  is  then  applied. 
The  remainder  of  the  process  is  the  same  as  for  ordinary 
Cheddar  cheese. 

226.  Sage  cheese  is  a  product  flavored  from  the 
leaves  of  the  ordinary  garden  sage.  It  is  made  by -two 
methods :  one,  in  which  the  sage  leaves  are  used,  and  the 
other,  in  which  a  part  of  the  curd  is  colored  to  imitate  that 
given  by  the  sage  leaves,  and  sage  oil  or  tea  is  used  to  give 
the  flavor. 

In  the  leaf  method,  a  regular  Cheddar  cheese  curd  is 
made  up  to  the  time  of  salting.  Just  before  the  salt  is 
added,  sage  leaves  are  mixed  with  the  curd.  The  leaves 
should  be  dried  and  freed  from  stems  and  other  coarse 
particles  and  the  leaves  themselves  broken  up  rather 
finely.  The  leaves  are  then  added  at  the  rate  of  3  ounces 
for  every  1000  pounds  of  milk.  Care  must  be  exercised 
to  see  that  the  leaves  are  evenly  mixed  through  the 
curd  or  an  evenly  mottled  cheese  will  not  result.  The 
salt  is  then  added.  This  sequence  seems  to  increase  the 
absorption  of  the  flavor  by  the  curd. 

If  these  cheeses  are  consumed  as  soon  as  well  cured, 
no  fault  can  be  found.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  are 
held  for  any  length  of  time,  yellow  areas  form  about  each 
piece  of  sage  leaf ;  the  leaves  decay  rapidly  and  spoil 
the  cheese.  This  method  gives  a  very  true  flavored 
sage  cheese,  the  only  objection  being  that  it  cannot  be 
held  in  storage  for  any  length  of  time  without  a  marked 
deterioration. 


240  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

In  the  other  method  of  making  sage  cheese,  either  a 
vat  with  a  movable  partition  or  a  large  and  a  small  vat 
must  be  used.  In  many  cases  the  receiving  can  is  used  as 
the  small  vat.  After  the  milk  is  properly  ripened  and 
ready  to  set,  one-sixth  to  one-seventh  of  the  milk  is  put 
into  the  small  vat.  To  this  small  vat,  green  coloring  mat- 
ter is  added.  Juice  from  the  leaves  of  corn,  clover,  or 
spinach  was  formerly  used  as  coloring.  Consequently  the 
manufacture  of  sage  cheese  by  this  method  was  limited 
to  the  seasons  of  the  year  when  these  leaves  could  be 
obtained.  Now,  however,  the  dairy  supply  houses  have 
a  harmless  green  color  paste  which  is  much  cheaper  and 
can  be  secured  at  any  season  of  the  year.  The  amount 
of  color  paste  to  use  will  vary  from  30  to  35  c.c.  for  every 
1000  pounds  of  total  milk.  This  should  be  added  to  the 
small  vat  of  milk.  It  gives  a  green  milk  and  later  a  green 
curd. 

Both  vats  are  worked  along  together,  until  the  time  for 
removing  the  whey.  Then  the  partition  in  the  vat  is 
removed  or  the  small  vat  is  mixed  with  the  large  one. 
The  green  curd  should  then  be  evenly  mixed  with  the 
white  one  or  an  even  green  mottled  cheese  will  not  result. 
The  curds  should  not  be  mixed  until  they  are  well  firmed 
or  the  white  curd  will  take  on  a  greenish  cast  and  spoil 
the  appearance  of  the  cheese. 

After  the  whey  is  removed,  the  curd  is  allowed  to  mat 
as  in  ordinary  Cheddar  but  care  must  be  exercised  to  pile 
the  curd  so  that  it  cannot  spread  or  "  draw  "  out.  If 
it  does  draw  out,  the  small  green  spots  will  be  stretched 
out  and  large  blotches  or  patches  of  green  will  be  the 
result.  The  cheese-maker  must  watch  the  curd  closely 
or  he  may  not  secure  the  much  desired  small  green  mottles. 
When  the  curd  is  well  matted,  it  is  milled  as  in  Cheddar. 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE         241 

Just  before  the  salt  is  added,  the  sage  extract  is  applied 
to  the  curd. 

The  sage  extract  can  be  obtained  from  dairy  supply 
houses,  or  a  sage  tea  can  be  made  by  steeping  the  sage 
leaves.  In  many  cases  the  commercial  extract  gives  the 
cheese  a  strong  disagreeable  flavor,  but  not  a  true  sage 
flavor.  The  sage  tea  gives  a  flavor  more  like  that  of 
the  leaves  themselves.  Too  much  of  the  extract  or  the 
leaves  will  give  a  very  rank  flavor.  The  sage  extract 
can  best  be  put  on  the  curd  by  means  of  a  sprayer  or 
atomizer  with  which  it  can  be  evenly  sprayed  over  the 
entire  surface.  The  extract  should  be  applied  two  or 
three  times  and  the  curd  well  stirred  after  each  application. 
The  amount  of  the  extract  to  use  depends  altogether  on 
its  strength ;  an  ounce  of  the  extract  or  three  ounces  of 
sage  tea  to  1000  pounds  of  milk  is  about  the  correct 
amount.  After  the  extract  has  been  added,  the  salt  is 
used  at  the  same  rate  as  with  a  normal  Cheddar  curd 
and  the  sage  curd  is  carried  along  the  same  as  a  Cheddar. 

This  extract  method  gives  a  sage  cheese  mottled  with 
small  green  spots  which  somewhat  resemble  the  green  of 
sage  leaves.  A  cheese  made  in  this  way  can  be  held  for 
a  long  time,  as  nothing  has  been  added  which  can  decay. 
The  only  objection  to  this  method  is  that  the  sage  extract 
may  not  give  a  true  sage  flavor.  Therefore,  the  maker 
must  try  to  obtain  the  best  extract  possible  or  make  his 
own  from  the  sage  leaves. 

227.  Skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese.1  —  The  process  of 
making  skimmed-milk  cheese  after  the  Cheddar  process  is 
varied  with  the  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  milk.  Before 
attempting  to  make  skimmed-milk  Cheddar,  one  should  be- 

1  Fisk,  W.  W.,  Skim-milk  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.   (Cornell) 
Exp.  Sta.  Ex.  Bui.  18,  1917. 
B 


242  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

come  familiar  with  the  process  for  whole-milk  Cheddar. 
Skimmed-milk  cheeses  are  usually  highly  colored. 

When  part  skimmed-milk  cheese  is  manufactured,  there 
is  often  difficulty  in  getting  the  milk  in  the  vat  to  test  the 
desired  percentage  of  fat.  Some  cheese-makers  skim  all 
the  milk  and  then  put  in  the  desired  amount  of  cream. 
This  practice  seems  wasteful,  not  only  because  of  the  cost 
of  separation,  but  because  the  fat  will  not  mix  easily 
with  the  milk  but  will  tend  to  float  on  the  surface.  If  the 
fat  floats,  there  will  be  a  large  loss.  After  a  very  few 
trials  an  operator  can  tell  about  how  much  of  the  whole 
milk  must  be  skimmed  in  order  to  have  the  mixed  skimmed- 
milk  and  whole  milk  test  the  desired  percentage  of  fat. 
The  necessary  percentage  of  fat  in  the  mixed  milk  to  pro- 
duce cheese  of  a  certain  grade  can  be  determined  by 
testing  the  cheese  by  the  Babcock  test.  (See  Chapter 
XIX.) 

228.  Full  skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese.  —  In  the 
summer  there  is  not  much  demand  for  full  skimmed-milk 
cheese,  but  it  is  made  in  large  quantity  in  winter.  The 
method  of  manufacture  is  as  follows : 

Skimmed-milk  as  it  comes  from  the  separator  is  at  a 
temperature  of  about  88°  to  90°  F. ;  it  is  ripened  and  set 
at  this  temperature.  It  is  ripened  rather  highly  on  the 
acid  test,  from  0.18  to  0.20  of  1  per  cent,  and  to  correspond 
on  the  rennet  test  which  will  not  be  many  spaces.  In 
about  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes  it  is  coagulated  ready 
for  cutting.  The  curd  of  skimmed-milk  cheese  is  cut  a  little 
softer  than  is  that  of  whole-milk  cheese.  Milk  is  usually 
set  at  88°  to  90°  F.  The  curd  is  not  ordinarily  cooked 
above  this  temperature.  If  the  milk  was  84°  to  86°  F. 
when  set,  then  the  curd  should  be  raised  to  88°  to  90°  F. 
The  curd  firms  in  the  whey  very  rapidly.  When  firm 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE         243 

enough,  it  should  have  a  slight  development  of  acid. 
On  the  acid  test  it  should  show  0.17  to  0.19  per  cent,  and 
on  the  hot  iron  |  to  J  of  an  inch.  The  milk  should 
be  ripe  enough  or  starter  enough  should  have  been  used, 
so  that  the  acid  will  continue  to  develop  in  the  "pack  " 
very  rapidly.  During  the  cheddaring  process  the  curd 
is  piled  more  rapidly  and  in  higher  piles  than  is  cus- 
tomary with  whole-milk  cheese.  This  is  necessary  to 
incorporate  or  assimilate  a  large  percentage  of  water  or 
whey  in  the  cheese.  Therefore  the  process  of  skimmed-milk 
Cheddar  cheese  is  much  shorter.  More  acid  is  developed 
with  the  skimmed-milk  than  with  the  whole-milk  cheese 
because  it  seems  necessary  to  develop  proper  texture. 
If  the  acid  is  not  developed  sufficiently,  the  cheese  will  be 
very  rubbery  and  cure  very  slowly,  in  which  case  bad 
fermentation  and  flavor  may  and  often  do  develop. 
The  curd  is  turned,  pifed  or  cheddared  in  the  vat  until 
it  begins  to  become  meaty  and  fibrous.  If  there  is  danger 
of  too  much  acid,  the  curd  may  be  rinsed  off  with  water. 
It  is  then  milled  and  salted  at  the  rate  of  1  or  Ij  pounds 
of  salt  to  the  curd  from  each  1000  pounds  of  milk.  The 
remainder  of  the  process  is  the  same  as  that  for  making 
whole-milk  cheese. 

229.  Half  skimmed-milk  Cheddar  cheese. — No  definite 
directions  can  be  given  for  the  manufacture  of  part  skimmed- 
milk  cheese,  because  the  process  varies  with  the  amount 
of,  fat  left  in  the  milk.  As  the  fat  is  decreased,  the  pro- 
cess becomes  more  like  that  for  making  full  skimmed-milk 
cheese ;  as  the  fat  is  increased,  the  process  becomes  more 
like  that  for  whole-milk  cheese.  However,  the  process 
of  making  half  skimmed-milk  cheese  is  about  midway  be- 
tween the  two.  The  milk  is  ripened  more  than  it  would  be 
for  whole-milk  cheese,  usually  until  it  tests  from  0.15  to  0.17 


244  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

of  1  per  cent  acid.  The  curd  is  coagulated  and  cut  the 
same  as  for  the  other  skimmed-milk  cheeses.  It  is  cooked  to 
a  temperature  just  sufficient  to  firm  the  curd,  usually  from 
94°  to  96°  F.  The  lower  the  temperature  at  which  the 
curd  can  be  cooked  and  yet  become  firm,  the  better  is 
the  texture  of  the  cheese.  When  the  curd  has  firmed 
enough,  or  when  sufficient  acid  development,  from  0.15 
to  0.17  of  1  per  cent,  has  taken  place,  the  whey  is  removed. 
The  curd  is  then  turned,  piled  or  cheddared.  A  skimmed- 
milk  curd  may  be  piled  much  more  rapidly  than  a  whole- 
milk  curd  without  danger  of  injuring  it.  When  the  curd 
becomes  meaty  or  fibrous,  it  is  milled.  It  should  be 
salted  at  the  rate  of  1|  to  2  pounds  of  salt  to  the  curd 
from  each  1000  pounds  of  milk.  The  remainder  of  the 
process  is  the  same  as  that  for  making  whole-milk  cheese. 
The  cheese-maker  should  observe  the  following  points 
when  making  skimmed-milk  cheese*:  (1)  Have  clean-flavored 
sweet  milk ;  (2)  use  clean-flavored  commercial  starter ; 

(3)  ripen    the    milk    sufficiently,    but    not    too    much; 

(4)  firm  the  curd  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possible; 

(5)  have  the  curd  properly  firmed  when  the  whey   is 
drawn;    (6)  cheddar  the  curd  faster  than  the  curd  from 
whole  milk;    (7)    make   the   cheeses  all  the  same  size; 
(8)  keep  the  cheese  neat  and  clean  in  the  curing-room. 

230.  Yield  and  qualities  of  skimmed-milk  Cheddar 
cheese.  —  The  results  of  skimming  different  percentages  of 
whole  milk  containing  varying  percentages  of  fat  are  given 
in  the  following  table.  As  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
milk  decreases,  the  yield  of  cheese  also  decreases,  accord- 
ing to  the  table.  As  the  percentage  of  fat  decreases 
in  the  milk,  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the  cheese 
increases,  showing  that  moisture  is  substituted  for  fat. 
The  yield  of  cheese  from  100  pounds  of  milk  is  also  given 


COMPOSITION  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE         245 


in  this  table.  This  yield  varies  with  the  amount  of  mois- 
ture incorporated  into  the  cheese,  the  amount  of  solids  not 
fat  in  the  milk,  and  the  solids  lost  in  the  whey. 

TABLE   XIV 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  COMPOSITION  AND   YIELD    OF   SKIMMED- 
MILK  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


PERCENT- 

COMPOSITION OP  THE  CHEESE 

PER- 

PER- 

AGE OP  FAT 

NUMBER 
OF  POUNDS 

CENTAGE 
OF  FAT 

IN   THE 

MILK 

CENTAGE 

OP   THE 

MILK 
SKIMMED 

IN  THE 

MILK 
IN  THE  VAT 
AFTER 
SKIMMING 

op  CHEESE 

PROM    100 

POUNDS 
OF  MILK 

Percentage 
of  Total 
Solids 

Percentage 
of  Fat 

Percentage 
of  Water 

4.7 

50 

2.4 

9.92 

54.75 

22.00 

45.25 

4.7 

60 

2.0 

9.74 

52.46 

17.50 

47.54 

4.7 

70 

1.5 

9.26 

49.87 

13.50 

50.13 

4.7 

80 

1.0 

8.42 

48.26 

10.00 

51.74 

4.0 

50 

2.0 

9.70 

53.29 

21.00 

46.71 

4.0 

60 

1.6 

9.50 

50.89 

17.00 

49.11 

4.0 

70 

1.2 

9.30 

48.06 

13.50 

51.94 

4.0 

80 

0.9 

9.20 

45.24 

10.50 

54.76 

3.5 

50 

1.8 

8.54 

54.20 

19.50 

45.80 

3.5 

60 

1.5 

8.10 

51.10 

16.50 

48.90 

3.5 

70 

1.1 

7.44 

52.62 

13.00 

47.38 

3.5 

80 

0.9 

7.00 

49.64 

9.54 

50.36 

3.4 

50 

1.9 

8.24  i 

54.50 

20.00 

45.50 

3.4 

60 

1.5 

7.82 

52.05 

16.50 

47.95 

3.4 

70 

J1.4 
11.2 

J7.80 
\7.28 

/  49.04 
\50.76 

/  14.00 
\  14.00 

/  50.96 
\  49.24 

3.4 

80 

0.9 

7.24 

47.41 

10.50 

52.59 

In  some  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  the  milk  is 
skimmed  and  the  cream  made  into  butter  and  the  skimmed- 
milk  into  cheese  by  the  Cheddar  process.  In  making 
cheese  without  the  milk-fat,  it  is  difficult  to  standardize 
a  method  that  will  produce  the  flavor  and  body  of  the 

1  Curd  was  spilled  but  practically  all  recovered. 


246  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

whole-milk  Cheddar  cheese.  A  skimmed-milk  cheese  lacks 
the  softness  and  mellowness  of  texture  of  the  whole-milk 
product.  It  is  very  likely  to  be  tough,  dry  or  leathery.  It 
is  attempted  to  remedy  this  defect  by  incorporating  more 
moisture  into  the  skimmed-milk  cheese.  The  added  mois- 
ture tends  to  replace  the  fat  in  giving  a  soft  mellow  body. 
It  requires  skill  on  the  part  of  the  cheese-maker  to  incorpo- 
rate moisture  to  take  the  place  of  the  fat  in  giving  the 
cheese  mellowness  and  smoothness  of  body. 

The  grades  of  skimmed-milk  cheese  vary  between  rather 
wide  limits  —  from  those  made  entirely  of  skimmed-milk 
to  those  made  of  milk  from  which  only  a  small  amount 
of  fat  has  been  removed  and  which  are  almost  like  whole- 
milk  cheese.  Because  of  the  gradations  of  skimmed-milk 
cheese,  it  is  difficult  to  make  anything  but  general  state- 
ments and  to  base  comparisons  with  whole-milk  cheese. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CHEDDAR  CHEESE  RIPENING 

FRESHLY  made  Cheddar  cheese  is  hard,  tough  and  elastic 
and  lacks  characteristic  cheese  flavor.  In  this  condi- 
tion it  is  called  "  green/'  unripe  or  not  cured.  Before 
the  cheese  is  ready  to  be  eaten;  it  passes  through  a 
complex  series  of  changes  which  are  collectively  known 
as  ripening.  In  the  ripening  process  the  texture 
becomes  soft  and  mellow  and  the  characteristic  cheese 
flavors  develop.  Cheese  ripening  must  be  considered 
from  two  view-points,  first,  the  changes  taking  place  in- 
side the  cheese  and  secondly  the  outside  conditions  neces- 
sary for  ripening.  Some  of  the  chemical  changes  during 
ripening  are  known,  while  others  are  not  understood.  The 
different  agents  causing  ripening,  and  the  constituents  of 
the  milk,  will  be  discussed. 

231.  Fat.  —  Numerous  investigations  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  what  chemical  changes  the  fat  undergoes 
in  the  ripening  process.  Suzuki,1  in  studying  the  fat, 
found  no  enzyme  capable  of  producing  lactic  acid  or 
volatile  fatty  acids.  However,  these  acids  were  found 
in  increasing  amounts  during  the  ripening  process  and 
after  the  lactose  had  disappeared.  Acetic  and  propionic 
acids  reached  a  maximum  at  three  months  and  then 

1  Suzuki,  S.  K.,  et  al.,  Production  of  fatty  acids  and  esters  in 
Cheddar  cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Research  Bui.  11. 

247 


248  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

decreased,  while  butyric  and  caproic  acids  continually  in- 
creased during  the  experimental  period  covered.  Formic 
acid  was  detected  in  the  whole-milk  cheese  only  at  the 
five  and  one-half  month  stage.  In  the  judgment  of 
the  experimenter  the  principal  source  of  acetic  and 
propionic  acids  was  probably  lactates.  Traces  of  these 
acids  may  have  had  their  origin  in  protein  decomposition 
or  further  fermentation  of  glycerine.  The  principal 
sources  indicated  for  butyric  and  caproic  acids  were  fats 
and  proteins. 

The  distillate  from  the  experimental  cheese  was  desig- 
nated "  flavor  solution "  and  contained  alcohols  and 
esters,  giving  a  close  resemblance  to  the  cheese  aroma. 
The  "  flavor  solution  "  from  the  mild  whole-milk  cheese 
contained  esters  made  up  largely  of  ethyl  alcohol  and  acetic 
acid,  while  from  the  more  pungent  skimmed-milk  cheese 
the  esters  were  largely  compounds  of  ethyl  alcohol  and 
caproic  and  butyric  acids.  The  alcohol  may  have  come 
from  the  lactose  fermentation.  It  appears  to  be  an  im- 
portant factor  in  flavor  production.  The  agencies  opera- 
tive in  the  production  of  volatile  acids  and  syntheses  of 
esters  are  as  yet  undefined. 

232.  Milk-sugar.  —  The  milk-sugar  (lactose)  is  changed 
into  lactic  acid  by  the  lactic  acid-forming  organisms, 
within  the  first  few  days  after  the  cheese  is  made. 
This  acid  is  combined  with  the  other  constituents  as  fast 
as  it  is  formed.  After  a  few  days,  the  milk-sugar  will 
have  entirely  disappeared  from  the  cheese.1  The  relation 
between  the  milk-sugar  and  lactic  acid  is  very  close.  It 
is  necessary  that  milk-sugar  be  present  in  order  later  to 
have  the  lactic  acid  develop. 

1  Babcock,  S.  M.,  et  al.,  Cheese  ripening  as  influenced  by  sugar, 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1901,  pages  162-167. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  249 

233.  The  salts.  —  Just  what  changes  the  salts 1  undergo 
or  how  they  combine  with  the  other  compounds  is  not 
definitely  known.     It  is  supposed  that  the  calcium  salts 
first  combine  with  the  phosphates  and  later,  as  the  lactic 
acid  is  formed,  they  combine  with  the  lactic  acid,  forming 
a  calcium  lactate. 

234.  Gases.  —  In    the    process    of    cheese    ripening, 
gases  are  formed,  the  commonest  being  carbon  dioxide.2 
Exactly  how  this  gas  is  formed  is  not  known.     It  may  be 
due  to  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  the  milk-sugar 
or  to  the  living  organisms  in  the  cheese. 

235.  Casein  or  proteins.  —  Complex  ripening  changes 
in  the  cheese  take  place  in  the  casein  compounds  or  pro- 
teins.    Because  of  the  complex  chemical  nature  of  the 
proteins  and  the  various  agents  acting  on  them,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  follow  these  changes.     This  has  led  to  different 
opinions  regarding    the   ripening  process.     The    various 
compounds  thought  to  be  formed  from  the  casein  or  pro- 
teins are  as  follows : 3 

1  Bosworth,  A.  W.,  and  M.  J.  Prucha,  Fermentation  of  citric 
acid  in  milk,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  14,  1910. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  Bosworth,  Condition  of  casein 
and  salts  in  milk,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  39,  1914. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  A  study  of  some  of  the  salts 
formed  by  casein  and  paracasein  with  acids ;  their  relation  to  Amer- 
ican Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  214,  1902. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  Some  of  the  relations  of 
casein  and  paracasein  to  bases  and  acids  and  their  application 
to  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  261,  1905. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  O.  B.  Winter,  Cheese  ripening  investi- 
gations, N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  33,  1914. 

2  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  The  relation  of  carbon 
dioxide  to  proteolysis  in  the  ripening  of  Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y. 
(Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  231,  1903. 

3  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  Some  of  the  compounds 
present  in  American  Cheddar  cheese,   N.   Y.    (Geneva)   Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  219,  1902. 


250  THE   BOOK  'OF   CHEESE 

Paracasein  (formed  by  the  action  of  the  rennet  on  the 
casein).  Insoluble  in  brine  and  warm  5  per  cent  salt  brine. 

Protein.     Soluble  in  warm  5  per  cent  salt  brine. 

Protein.     Insoluble  in  warm  salt  brine  or  water. 

Paranuclein.  A  protein  soluble  in  water  and  precipi- 
table  by  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

Caseoses  and  proteases.  Protein  derivations  soluble  in 
water  and  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

Peptones.  Protein  derivations  simpler  than  the  pro- 
teoses,  soluble  in  water  and  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

Amido  acids.  Protein  derivations  soluble  in  water, 
least  complex  except  ammonia. 

Ammonia.     The  simplest  protein  derivations. 

From  the  discussion  of  the  constituents  in  the  milk 
and  cheese,  it  is  evident  that  practically  all  the  prin- 
cipal ripening  changes  are  concerned  with  those  taking 
place  in  the  proteins. 

236.  Causes  of   ripening    changes.  —  Authorities  dis- 
agree as  to  the  exact  agents  which  cause  the  ripening 
changes.     Some  think  they  are  due  to  the  action  of  the 
enzymes  in  the  rennet  and  those  secreted  in  the  milk. 
Others    hold  that    these    changes    are    due    entirely   to 
bacterial  action.     A  combination  of  the  two  seems  prob- 
able.    The    action    of   the    rennet   extract    renders    the 
casein   insoluble  and  in  the  ripening  process   the  pro- 
teins become  soluble,  the  degree  depending  on  the  length 
of  time  the  cheese  is  ripened.     The  amount  of  water- 
soluble  proteins  and  protein  derivatives  is  used  as  a  meas- 
ure of  the  extent  of  cheese  ripening,  considered  from  a 
chemical  standpoint. 

237.  Action  of  the  rennet  extract.  —  Some  authorities 
hold  that  rennet  extract  contains  two  enzymes,  rennin 
and  pepsin,  while  others  think  it  is  a  single  peptic  fer- 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  251 

ment.  These  enzymes  produce  effects  1  closely  related  to, 
if  not  identical  with,  those  of  pepsin  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars :  neither  the  rennet  enzyme  nor  pepsin  causes 
much,  if  any,  proteolytic  change  except  in  the  presence 
of  acid;  the  quantitative  results  of  proteolysis  furnished 
by  the  rennet  enzyme  and  pepsin  agree  closely,  when 
working  on  the  same  material  under  comparable  condi- 
tions ;  the  classes  of  soluble  nitrogen  compounds  formed 
by  the  two  enzymes  are  the  same,  both  quantitatively  and 
qualitatively;  neither  enzyme  forms  any  considerable 
amount  of  amido  compounds  and  neither  produces  any 
ammonia;  the  soluble  nitrogen  compounds  formed  by 
both  enzymes  are  confined  to  the  group  of  compounds 
known  as  paranuclein,  caseoses  and  peptones. 

Rennet  exerts  a  digestive  effect  on  the  casein 2  which  is 
intensified  by  the  development  of  acid  in  the  curd.  The 
soluble  nitrogenous  products  formed  in  Cheddar  cheese 
by  the  rennet  enzymes  are  the  albumoses  and  the  higher 
peptones.  Experiments  show  that  no  flavor  develops 
until  the  amido  acids  and  ammonia  are  formed.  When 
the  rennet  enzymes  were  the  only  digesting  ferments  in 
the  cheese,  there  was  no  trace  of  cheese  flavor.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rennet  enzyme  changed 
the  casein  into  caseoses  and  peptones  but  did  not  form 
amido  acids  and  ammonia.  Some  authorities 3  think 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  et  al.,  Action  of  rennin  or  casein,  N.  Y. 
(Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  31,  1913. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  et  al.,  Cheese  ripening  investigations ;  rennet 
enzyme  as  a  factor  in  cheese  ripening,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  233,  1903. 

2  Bosworth,  A.  W.,  Studies  relating  to  the  chemistry  of  milk 
and  casein,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  37,  1914. 

3Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1898,  Distribution  of  galactase  in 
milk  from  different  sources,  pages  87-97. 

Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  1903,  pages  195-197,  201-205,  222-223, 
Action  of  proteolytic  ferments  on  milk. 


252 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


that  the  enzyme  galactase  carries  the  ripening  of  the 
protein  from  this  stage.  The  question  arises  whether 
these  intermediate  compounds  must  be  found  before  other 
agents  can  form  the  amido  acids  and  ammonia. 

TABLE   XV1 

SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  AMOUNTS  OF  RENNET 
EXTRACTS  ON  THE  RATE  OF  FORMATION  OF  SOLUBLE 
NITROGEN  COMPOUNDS  IN  CHEESE  RIPENING 


QUANTITY  OP 
RENNET  ADDED  PER 
1000  LB.  OP  MILK 

PER  CENT  OP  WATER  SOLUBLE  NITROGEN  COMPOUNDS  IN 
THE  CHEESE 

Initial 

32  days 

80  days 

270  days 

2  oz. 

0.14 

0.47 

0.68 

1.30 

4  oz. 

0.16 

0.75 

1.13 

1.74 

8  oz. 

0.16 

0.90 

1.50 

1.97 

16  oz. 

0.14 

1.26 

1.70 

2.04 

The  above  table  shows  that  the  more  rennet  extract 
used  the  faster  the  cheese  cures,  measured  by  the 
amount  of  water-soluble  nitrogen  compounds  formed  in 
the  cheese. 

238.  The  action  of  the  bacteria.  —  Authorities  2  dis- 
agree as  to  the  groups  of  bacteria  found  in  Cheddar 
cheese.  This  may  be  due  to  lack  of  proper  classification. 
Some  of  the  groups  are :  Bacterium  lactis  acidi,  B. 
coli  communis,  B.  lactis  aerogenes,  B.  casei,  Streptococci, 
B?  Bulgaricum  and  Micrococci.  Authorities  agree  that 
the  B.  lactis  acidi  group  is  the  most  prominent.  This 
group  makes  up  90  per  cent  or  more  of  the  total  bacteria 

1  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Rept.  1900,  pages  102-122. 

2  Harding,  H.  A.,  and  M.  J.  Prucha,  The  bacterial  flora  of 
Cheddar  cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Tech.  Bui.  8. 

3  Bacterium,  Bacillus  and  Lactobacillus  are  preferred  by  dif- 
ferent authors  as  generic  placing  of  the  Bulgarian  sour  milk  species. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING 


253 


flora  of  the  cheese  in  the  early  stages  of  ripening.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  weeks,  however,  this  group  is  largely 
replaced  by  the  #.  casei  group.1 

TABLE  XVI 

SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OP  BACTERIA  TO  A  GRAM  IN  CHEDDAR 
CHEESE  AS  DETERMINED  BY  LACTOSE-AGAR  PLATE  CUL- 
TURES 


TIME  OP 
PLATING 

CHEESE  NUMBER 

580 

581 

582 

683 

Milk  .     . 

8,000,000 

500,000 

700,000 

500,000 

Curd   at 
salting 
time     . 

160,000,000 

326,000,000 

912,000,000 

839,000,000 

12  hours 

332,000,000 

1,048,000,000 

623,000,000 

965,000,000 

1  day 

586,000,000 

736,000,000 

709,000,000 

.  569,000,000 

2  days     . 

235,000,000 

405,000,000 

848,000,000 

580,000,000 

4  days     . 

145,000,000 

684,000,000 

522,000,000 

1,025,000,000 

6  days     . 

165,000,000 

184,000,000 

853,000,000 

184,000,000 

14  days  . 

51,000,000 

211,000,000 

369,000,000 

401,000,000 

21  days  . 

284,000,000 

290,000,000 

348,000,000 

319,000,000 

28  days  . 

285,000,000 

453,000,000 

314,000,000 

144,000,000 

35  days  . 

104,000,000 

261,000,000 

326,000,000 

504,000,000 

49  days  . 

132,000,000 

228,000,000 

436,000,000 

661,000,000 

70  days  . 

128,000,000 

291,000,000 

193,000,000 

168,000,000 

98  days  . 

114,000,000 

212,000,000 

45,000,000 

55,000,000 

From  Wis.  Bui.  150. 

1  Hastings,  E.  G.,  Alice  C.  Evans  and  E.  B.  Hart,  The  bac- 
teriology of  Cheddar  cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  150,  pages  1-52, 
1912. 


254  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

The  large  number  of  bacteria  in  the  cheese  is  very 
striking.  The  number  as  given  in  the  accompanying  table 
is  not  that  actually  in  the  cheese,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain  the  sample  in  suitable  condition  for  plating.1 

The  principal  action  of  the  lactic  acid-forming  bacteria 
in  the  cheese  ripening  is  the  changing  of  the  milk-sugar 
or  lactose  into  lactic  acid  and  the  formation  of  small 
amounts  of  other  substances,  such  as  acetic,  succinic 
and  formic  acids,  alcohol,  aldehydes  and  esters  and  some 
gases,  carbon  dioxide  and  hydrogen.  While  the  amount 
of  these  substances  other  than  lactic  acid  is  small,  it  is 
thought  that  the  effect  of  these  on  the  cheese  may  be  im- 
portant. Heinemann  shows 2  that  lactic  acid  exists  in 
two  optical  modifications,  the  levorotatory  and  dextroro- 
tary  acids.  In  cheese  they  are  usually  found  in  the  inac- 
tive or  racemic  form,  the  levorotatory  and  dextrorotary 
acids  being  present  in  equal  amounts.  What  impor- 
tance the  question  of  optical  activity  of  the  lactic  acid 
may  assume  is  not  definitely  known.  Just  as  some  groups 
of  bacteria  have  a  specific  effect  on  the  lactose,  producing 
only  one  modification  of  lactic  acid,  so  bacteria  attacking 
lactic  acid  may  exercise  a  selective  action  and  use  only 
one  or  the  other  optically  active  modification.  In  other 
words,  the  early  flora  of  cheese-ripening  bacteria  may 
determine  the  later  flora  by  the  production  of  a  form  of 
lactic  acid  attacked  by  one  group  of  bacteria  and  not  by 
another,  and  the  effect  on  the  flavor  will  differ  accordingly. 
The  amount  of  lactic  acid  in  the  cheese  increases  for  a 
time,  then  decreases. 

1  Harding,  H.  A.,  The  r61e  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  in  the 
manufacture  and  in  the  early  stages  of  ripening  of  Cheddar 
cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  237,  1903. 

2  Heinemann,  P.  G.,  The  kinds  of  lactic  acid  produced  by 
lactic  acid  bacteria,  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.,  Vol.  2,  pages  603-608. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  255 

The  errors  in  determining  lactic  acid  are  considerable. 
It  seems  that  the  tendency  is  toward  an  increase  of  lactic 
acid  in  the  cheese  long  after  the  lactose  has  disappeared. 
Two  explanations  are  offered  :  one,  that  in  the  lactic  acid 
fermentation  an  intermediate  compound  or  compounds  are 
formed  which  exist  for  some  time,  the  conversion  into 
lactic  acid  being  complete  at  about  three  months;  the 
other  is  that  lactic  acid  is  formed  as  a  product  of  para- 
casein  proteolysis. 

The  lactic  acid  formed  in  cheese  ripening  does  not 
exist  in  a  free  state  but  reacts  with  the  calcium  salts 
in  the  cheese  and  forms  calcium  lactates.  It  is  thought 
that  there  is  sufficient  of  these  salts  to  neutralize  all  the 
acid  formed,  and  therefore  the  acid  does  not  enter  into 
combination  with  the  paracasein  salts.  It  has  been 
found  that  lactates  are  the  principal  source  of  acetic  and 
propionic  acids.  These  are  supposed  to  have  some  effect 
on  the  flavor  of  the  cheese. 

The  effect  of  lactic  acid  as  a  determinant  of  bacterial 
and  enzymic  changes  is  very  important.  Early  in  the 
ripening  process,  lactic  acid  suppresses  the  growth  of  un- 
desirable micro-organisms.  It  also  furnishes  the  acid 
medium  necessary  for  the  best  action  of  both  the  coagulat- 
ing and  peptic  enzymes. 

The  importance  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  in  cheese 
ripening  has  been  summed  up  by  Hastings  1  as  follows : 
"  The  functions  of  this  group  of  bacteria  in  Cheddar  cheese 
are  through  their  by-product  lactic  acid  as  follows :  (a) 
To  favor  the  curdling  of  milk  by  rennet,  (b)  The  bacteria 
of  the  milk  are  held  in  great  part  in  the  curd.  Through 
the  acid  they  influence  the  shrinkage  of  the  curd  and 

1  Hastings,  E.  G.,  et  aL,  The  bacteriology  of  Cheddar  cheese, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  150,  1912. 


256  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

expulsion  of  the  whey,  (c)  The  acid  so  changes  the  nature 
of  the  curd  as  to  cause  '  matting/  or  '  cheddaring ' 
of  the  curd,  (d)  The  acid  activates  the  pepsin  of  the 
rennet  extract,  (e)  The  acid  prevents  the  growth  of 
putrefactive  bacteria  in  the  cheese.  (/)  It  has  been  shown 
that  Bacterium  lactis  acidi  is  able  to  form  acid  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  living  cell,  (g)  The  development  of  Bacterium 
lactis  acidi  is  followed  by  the  growth  of  another  group  of 
acid-forming  bacteria,  the  Bacillus  Bulgaricus  group. 
They  reach  numbers  comparable  with  those  of  the  first 
group,  reaching  their  maximum  number  within  the  first 
month  of  ripening.  Since  they  develop  after  the  fermenta- 
tion of  the  milk-sugar,  they  must  have  some  other  source 
of  carbon  and  of  energy  than  milk-sugar."  It  is  also  prob- 
able that  other  groups  constantly  present  contribute  to 
the  changes. 

From  the  preceding  discussion  it  is  evident  that  each 
of  the  ripening  agents  has  its  important  part  to  play  in 
the  ripening  process  and  a  normal  ripening  of  the  cheese 
is  a  composite  result  of  these  various  agencies. 

239.  Conditions  affecting  the  rate  of  cheese  ripening. 
-The  rate  at  which  these  agents  cause  ripening  of  the 

cheese  depends  on  several  factors.1  Most  of  these  factors 
are  within  the  control  of  man.  They  are  as  follows :  the 
length  of  time ;  temperature  of  the  curing-room ;  moisture- 
content  of  the  cheese ;  size  of  the  cheese ;  the  quantity  of 
salt  used ;  the  amount  of  rennet ;  the  influence  of  acid. 

240.  The   length    of  time.  —  The  water-soluble  nitro- 
gen   compounds    increase    as    the    cheese    ages,    other 
conditions  being   uniform.     The   rate  of  increase  is  not 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart,  Conditions  affecting 
chemical  changes  in  cheese  ripening,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  236,  1903. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  257 

uniform;  it  is  much  more  rapid  in  the  early  than  in 
the  succeeding  stages  of  ripening. 

241.  The  temperature  of  the  curing-room.  —  Very  few 
cheese  factories  have  made  any  provision  for  regulat- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  curing-room.  Without  such 
provision  the  temperature  follows  closely  that  of  the  out- 
side air.  In  some  cases  the  curing-room  is  located  over 
the  boiler-room  and  hence  becomes  very  hot.  In  the 
cheese  warehouses,  provision  has  been  made  to  control 
the  temperature  very  closely.  Experiments  show  that 
the  soluble  nitrogen  compounds  increase,  on  the  average, 
closely  in  proportion  to  an  increase  of  temperature,  when 
the  other  conditions  are  uniform. 

The  temperature  of  the  curing-room  has  a  material 
effect  on  the  quality  of  the  cheese.  Cheese  made  from  the 
same  day's  milk,  and  part  cured  at  40°  F.,  part  at  50°  F., 
part  at  60°  F.  show  considerable  differences,  the  great- 
est seeming  to  be  in  the  flavor  and  texture.  Those  kept 
at  the  low  temperature  cure  more  slowly  and  develop  a 
milder  flavor,  those  at  the  higher  temperature  cure  faster 
and  develop  undesirable  flavors.  At  the  higher  tempera- 
ture the  undesirable  organisms  seem  to  be  more  active. 
Some  very  skillful  makers  and  judges  of  cheese  have 
always  contended  that  if  Cheddar  is  properly  made, 
firmed  to  the  body  and  texture  of  a  high-class  cheese,  ripen- 
ing at  55  to  60°  F.  gives  a  higher  quality.  Such  a  cheese 
must  be  low  in  moisture,  perhaps  3  to  5  per  cent  lower 
than  one  cured  successfully  by  the  cold  process. 

The  following  tables1  XVII,  XVIII  show  the  effect 
of  different  temperatures  of  curing  cheese  on  the  total 
score  and  on  the  points  of  the  flavor,  body  and  texture : 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  et  al.,  Cheese  ripening  at  low  tempera- 
tures, N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  234,  1903. 


258 


THE  BOOK  OF  CHEESE 


TABLE  XVII 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RELATION  OF  TEMPERATURE  OF  CURING 
TO  TOTAL  SCORE 


TEMPERATURE  OF  CURING 


TOTAL  SCORE 


40° 
50° 

60° 


95.7 
94.2 
91.7 


TABLE   XVIII 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RELATION  OF  TEMPERATURE  OF  CURING 
TO  SCORE  OF  BODY  AND  TEXTURE,  AND  FLAVOR 


TEMPERATURE  OP  CURING 

40°  F. 

50°  F. 

60°  F. 

Body  and  texture  .     .     . 
Flavor 

23.4 
47  4 

32.0 
464 

22.2 

44  8 

Of  the  three  temperatures  of  curing,  the  lowest  gave 
a  higher  total  score  and  a  higher  score  for  flavor,  body 
and  texture. 

The  curing  temperature  should  not  go  low  enough  to 
freeze  the  cheese,  as  this  lowers  the  quality.  The  cheese 
will  cure  very  slowly  and  have  a  mealy  texture. 

242.  Moisture-content  of  the  cheese.  —  Other  condi- 
tions being  equal,  there  is  a  larger  amount  of  water- 
soluble  nitrogen  compounds  in  cheese  containing  more 
moisture  than  in  that  containing  less  moisture.  There- 
fore, a  high  moisture-content  of  the  cheese  causes  it  to 
cure  faster.  The  presence  of  moisture  also  serves  to 
dilute  the  fermentation  products  which  otherwise  would 
accumulate  and  thus  check  the  action  of  the  ripening 
agents. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  259 

243.  The  size  of  the  cheese.  —  Cheeses  of  large  size 
usually  cure  faster  than  smaller  ones,  under  the  same 
conditions.     This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  large  cheeses 
lose  their  moisture  less  rapidly  by  evaporation  and  there- 
fore after  the  early  period  of  ripening  have  a  higher  water- 
content. 

244.  The    amount    of    salt.  —  The    relation    of    salt 
to  the  rate  of  ripening  is  more  or  less  directly  associated 
with  the    moisture-content  of  the  cheese,  since   an  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  salt  decreases   the  moisture. 
Thus,  cheese  containing  more  salt  forms  water-soluble 
nitrogen  compounds  more  slowly  than  that  containing 
less  salt.     The  salt  also  has  a  direct  effect  in  retarding 
one  or  more  of  the  ripening  agents. 

245.  The  amount  of  rennet  extract.  —  The  use  of  in- 
creased   amounts  of  rennet    extract    in   cheese-making, 
other  conditions  being  uniform,  results  in  the  production 
of  increased  quantities  of  soluble  nitrogen  compounds 
in  a  given  period  of  time,  especially  such  compounds  as 
paranuclein,  caseoses  and  peptones. 

246.  The   influence   of  acid.  —  It   is   necessary  that 
acid  be  present  but  the  exact  relation  of  varying  quanti- 
ties of  acid  to  the  chemical  changes  of  the  ripening  pro- 
cess is  not  fully  known.     If  too  much  acid  is  present,  it 
imparts  a  sour  taste  to  the  cheese.     It  also  causes  the 
texture  of  the  cheese  to  be  mealy  or  sandy  instead  of 
smooth  and  waxy. 

Conditions  that  may  increase  the  rate  of  ripening : 

1.  Increase  of  temperature. 

2.  Larger  amounts  of  rennet. 

3.  More  moisture  in  the  cheese. 

4.  Less  salt. 


260  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

5.  Large  size  of  the  cheese. 

6.  Moderate  amount  of  acid. 

Conditions  that  may  retard  ripening : 

1.  Decrease  of  temperature. 

2.  Smaller  amounts  of  rennet. 

3.  Less  moisture  in  the  cheese. 

4.  More  salt. 

5.  Small  size  of  the  cheese. 

6.  No  acid  or  an  excess  of  acid. 

247.  Care  of  the  cheese  in  the  curing-room.  —  The 
cheeses  need  daily  attention  while  in  the  curing-room 
(Fig.  53).  They  should  be  turned  every  day  to  prevent 
sticking  and  molding  to  the  shelf  and  to  secure  an  even 
evaporation  of  moisture.  If  not  turned,  the  moisture 
will  not  evaporate  evenly  from  all  surfaces  and  will  result 
in  an  uneven  distribution  in  the  cheese,  which  causes 
uneven  curing,  and  usually  gives  the  product  an  uneven 
color. 

The  surface  of  the  cheese  should  be  watched  to  see  that 
the  cloths  stick.  If  they  do  not,  the  surface  will  crack, 
due  to  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture.  If  the  cloths 
are  loosened,  they  should  be  removed  and  the  surface 
of  the  cheese  greased  with  butter.  The  grease  will  tend 
to  prevent  the  rind  from  cracking.  If  the  surface  of  the 
cheese  is  not  smooth,  due  to  wrinkles  in  the  bandage, 
or  if  it  cracks,  due  to  the  lack  of  cloths,  it  furnishes  the 
opportunity  for  insects  to  lay  their  eggs  and  the  larvae 
to  develop  within  the  cheese.  Molds  also  lodge  and 
grow  in  such  cracks. 

The  cheese  should  be  kept  clean  while  in  the  curing- 
room.  This  means  that  the  hands  of  the  person  handling 
the  cheese  must  be  clean.  The  shelves  should  be  washed 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING 


261 


262  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

with  good  cleaning  solution  and  scalded  with  hot  water 
whenever  they  become  greasy  or  moldy. 

Some  means  should  be  provided  for  regulating  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  curing-room.  In  most 
factories  this  is  accomplished  by  opening  the  doors  and 
windows  at  night  to  admit  the  cool  air  and  closing 
them  in  the  morning  to  keep  out  the  hot  air.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  doors  and  windows  closely 
secured.  The  windows  should  have  shades  to  keep  out 
the  sun.  If  the  room  becomes  too  dry,  the  floor  may  be 
dampened  with  cold  water. 

The  length  of  time  in  the  curing-room  depends  on  how 
often  shipment  is  made  to  some  central  warehouse  or  to 
the  market.  This  usually  varies  from  two  to  six  weeks. 

When  the  surface  of  the  cheese  becomes  dry  and  the 
rind  is  well  formed,  the  cheese  may  be  paraffined.  It 
usually  requires  four  to  six  days  after  cheeses  are  taken 
from  the  hoop  before  they  are  ready  for  this  process. 
The  object  of  paraffining  is  to  prevent  the  escape  of  mois- 
ture and  to  keep  the  cheese  from  molding. 

248.  Evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  cheese  during 
ripening.  —  The  losses  due  to  evaporation  while  the 
cheeses  are  curing  are  a  considerable  item.  The  rate  of 
evaporation  depends  on  the  temperature  and  humidity 
of  the  curing-room,  the  size  of  the  cheese,  the  moisture- 
content  and  protection  to  the  surface. 

Table  XIX  1  shows  the  effect  of  size  of  cheese  and 
temperature  of  the  curing-room,  on  losses  while  curing. 
This  table  shows  that  the  evaporation  of  moisture  is 
more  as  the  size  of  the  cheese  decreases  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  increased.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  LM  et  al.,  Cheese  ripening  at  low  temperatures, 
N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta."  Bui.  234,  1903. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING 


263 


the  smaller  cheese  has  more  surface  to  a  pound  than  a 
large  cheese.  The  evaporation  increases  with  tempera- 
ture, probably  because  of  lowered  relative  humidity.  The 
humidity  can  be  tested  with  an  hygrometer. 


TABLE   XIX 

SHOWING  THE  VARIATION  OF  LOSSES  IN  WEIGHT  OF  CHEDDAR 
CHEESE  WHILE  CURING,  DUE  TO  SIZE  OF  CHEESE  AND  TEM- 
PERATURE OF  CURING-ROOM 


WEIGHT  OF  CHEESE 
IN  POUNDS 

WEIGHT  LOST  PER  100  POUNDS  OF  CHEESE  IN  20 
WEEKS  AT 

40°  F. 

50°  F. 

60°  F. 

70 

2.5 

2.4 

4.2 

45 

2.7 

3.7 

5.1 

35 

3.9 

5.9 

8.5 

m 

4.6 

8.1 

12.0 

The  higher  the  moisture-content  of  the  cheese,  usually 
the  more  rapid  is  the  evaporation.  This  is  due  to  several 
causes :  there  is  more  moisture  to  evaporate ;  the  mois- 
ture is  not  so  well  incorporated ;  a  moist  cheese  does  not 
form  so  good  a  rind. 

249.  Paraffining 1  consists  of  dipping  the  cheese  in 
melted  paraffin  at  a  temperature  of  about  220°  F.  for 
six  seconds.  Fig.  54  shows  an  apparatus  for  paraffining. 
This  leaves  a  very  thin  coat  of  paraffin  on  the  cheese ; 
at  a  lower  temperature,  a  thicker  coat  would  be  left. 
The  thicker  coating  is  more  liable  to  crack  and  peel  off. 
If  the  cheese  is  not  perfectly  dry  before  it  is  treated, 
the  paraffin  will  blister  and  crack  off. 


1  Doane,  C.  F.,  Methods  and  results  of  paraffining  cheese, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Circ.  181,  pages  1-16,  1911. 


264 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


Before  a  cheese  is  paraffined,  the  press  cloth  is  removed 
and  also  the  starched  circles,  if  loose.  After  a  cheese  has 
been  paraffined,  if  the  coating  is  not  broken,  the  loss 
due  to  evaporation  is  greatly  reduced.  The  amount 
of  paraffin  to  coat  a  35-pound  cheese  will  depend  on  the 
temperature  of  the  paraffin  and  the  length  of  time  the  cheese 
is  immersed.  Usually  at  220°  F.  it  requires  about  0.15 
^^^-A  of  a  pound  for  each  35-pound 

f^**  cheese.     After  the  cheeses  have 

been  paraffined,  they  may  be 
left  on  the  curing-room  shelves 
or  boxed  ready  to  ship. 

250.  Shipping. — When  ready 
to  ship,  each  cheese  should  be 
carefully  and  accurately 
weighed  and  boxed.  Usually 
these  cheeses  are  boxed  after 
being  paraffined.  If  press 
cloths  are  left  on  the  cheese  in 
the  curing-room,  they  should 
be  removed  just  before  weigh- 
ing. These  cloths  should  not 
be  left  in  a  pile  in  the  factory 
after  being  removed  as  they 
have  been  known  to  heat  and  sometimes  cause  fires. 
They  should  be  washed  clean  and  dried  ready  for  use 
again.  If  starched  circles  are  used,  they  should  be  left 
on  the  cheese.  A  scale  board  should  be  placed  on  each 
end  of  the  cheese  to  prevent  its  sticking  to  the  box  and 
also  to  keep  the  box  from  wearing  the  surface  of  the  cheese. 
The  box  should  be  a  trifle  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
cheese  so  that  the  latter  can  be  easily  placed  in  it.  The 
sides  of  the  box  should  be  the  same  height  as  the  cheese. 


FIG.  54.  —  A  paraffiner  for 
cheese. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  265 

The  weight  of  each  cheese  should  be  neatly  and  accu- 
rately marked  on  each  box.  Care  should  be  exercised  to 
keep  the  boxes  clean. 

DEFECTS  IN  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 

A  great  number  of  defects  may  occur  in  Cheddar 
cheese.  Certain  of  these  are  due  to  known  causes  and 
proper  remedies  are  definable,  while  neither  cause  nor 
remedy  has  been  found  for  other  defects.  Some  of  the 
common  defects  and  their  causes  and  remedies  are 
discussed  under  different  headings  of  the  score-card  as : 
defects  in  flavor,  their  causes  and  remedies;  defects  in 
body  and  texture,  their  causes  and  remedies;  defects  in 
color,  their  causes  and  remedies;  defects  in  finish  and 
their  causes  and  remedies. 

251.  Defects  in  flavor.  —  Any  flavor  differing  from  the 
characteristic   Cheddar  cheese   is  a  defect.     Certain   of 
these   defective   flavors   can   be   recognized   and    causes 
and  remedies  given  for  them,  while  others  may  be  distin- 
guished as  such  but  no  cause  or  remedy  can  be  given. 

252.  Feedy  flavors.  —  Flavors  may  be  characteristic 
of  certain  feeding  stuffs.     Feeding  strong-flavored  foods, 
such  as  turnips,  cabbage,  decayed  silage,  certain  weeds 
and  sometimes  rank  green  feed,  give  their  peculiar  flavors 
to  both  milk  and  cheese.     Freshly  drawn  milk  usually 
absorbs  these  odors  from  the  air  in  barns  filled  with  such 
foods.     Certain  of  these  materials  may  be  fed  just  after 
milking  in  moderate  amounts  without  affecting  the  milk 
drawn  at  the  next  milking.     Others  should  not  be  used. 
Milk  should  not  be  exposed  to   strong  volatile   odors. 
Some  of  the  objectionable  odors   may  be  removed  by 
airing  the  curd  for  a  longer  time  after  milling  before 
the  salt  is  applied. 


266  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

253.  Acid  flavors.  —  A  cheese  with  an  acid  flavor  has 
a  pronounced  sour  smell  and  taste.     This  is  caused  by 
the  over-development  of  acid  which  may  be  due  to  any 
of  the  following  causes :    (a)  receiving  milk  at  the  factory 
which  is  sour  or  has  too  high  development  of  acid;    (6) 
using  too  much  starter;    (c)  ripening  the  milk  too  much 
before  adding  rennet ;   (d)  not  firming  the  curd  sufficiently 
in  the  whey  before  removing  the  latter;    (e)  developing 
too  much  acid  in  the  whey  before  it  is  removed ;    (/)  re- 
taining too  much  moisture  in  the  curd. 

The  trouble  can  be  reduced  or  eliminated  by  one 
or  more  of  the  following  precautions :  (a)  receiving 
only  clean,  sweet  milk  at  the  cheese  factory;  (6)  main- 
taining the  proper  relation  between  the  moisture  and 
acidity;  (c)  adding  the  rennet  at  the  proper  acidity; 
(d)  using  less  starter;  (e)  adding  the  rennet  extract  so 
that  there  will  be  sufficient  time  to  firm  the  curd  before 
the  acid  has  developed  to  such  a  stage  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  draw  the  whey;  (/)  producing  the  proper 
final  water-content  in  the  newly  made  cheese. 

254.  Sweet  or  fruity  flavors.  —  These  are  the  sweet 
flavors  characteristic  of  strawberry,  raspberry  and  the 
like.     Such  flavors   are  very  objectionable  and  usually 
increase  with  the  age  of  the   cheese.     They   appear  to 
be  caused  by :    (a)  carrying  both  milk  and  whey  in  the 
same  cans  without  properly  cleaning  them ;    (b)  expos- 
ing milk  near  hog-pens  where  whey   is  fed;    (c)  dirty 
whey  tanks  at  the  cheese  factory;    (d)  micro-organisms 
which  get  into  the  milk  through  any  unclean  conditions. 

These  troubles  can  be  controlled  :  (a)  if  milk  and  whey 
must  be  carried  in  the  same  cans,  the  cans  should  be 
emptied  immediately  on  arrival  at  the  farm  and  thor- 
oughly washed  and  scalded;  (6)  the  whey  vat  at  the 


CHEDDAR    CHEESE   RIPENING  267 

factory  should  be  kept  clean  and  sweet;    (c)  the  starter 
must  have  the  proper  clean  flavor. 

Other  defects  may  be  classed  as  "  off  flavors,"  "  dirty 
flavors,"  "  bitter  flavors  "  and  the  like.  These  are  un- 
doubtedly due  to  unsanitary  conditions  whereby  undesir- 
able organisms  get  into  the  milk,  even  though  the  particular 
organism  is  often  not  determined.  The  flavors  may  be 
improved  by  the  use,  of  a  clean-flavored  commercial  starter 
and  by  airing  the  curd  after  milling  before  salting.  The 
best  remedy  is  to  remove  the  source  of  the  difficulty. 

255.  Defects  in  body  and  texture.  —  The  body  and 
texture  should  be  close.     A  sample  rubbed  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers  should  be  smooth  and  waxy.     Any 
condition  which  causes  a  body  and  texture  other  than  this 
is  to  be  avoided. 

256.  Loose   or   open   texture.  —  A   cheese   with   this 
defect  is  full  of  irregularly  shaped  holes  and  usually  soft  or 
weak-bodied.     This  is  serious  if  the  cheese  is  to  be  held 
for  some  time.     Moisture  and  fat  are  likely  to  collect  in 
these  holes  and  cause  the  cheese  to  deteriorate,  thereby 
shortening  its  commercial  life. 

Several  causes  may  bring  about  this  condition :  (a) 
insufficient  cheddaring ;  (b)  pressing  at  too  high  a  temper- 
ature; (c)  inadequate  pressing;  (d)  development  of  too 
little  acid. 

The  corresponding  remedies  are :  (a)  cheddar  the  curd 
until  the  holes  are  closed  and  the  curd  is  solid ;  (6)  cool 
the  curd  to  80°  F.  before  putting  to  press ;  (c)  press  the 
curd  longer,  possibly  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  hours; 
(d)  develop  a  little  higher  acid  in  the  whey  before  re- 
moving the  curd. 

257.  Dry  body.  —  A  cheese  with  this  defect  is  usually 
firm,  hard  and  dry,  sometimes  rubbery  or  corky.     This 


268  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

may  result  from  lack  of  moisture,  fat  or  both,  and  may  be 
due  to  the  following  causes :  (a)  making  the  cheese  from 
partly  skimmed-milk ;  (6)  heating  the  curd  in  the  whey 
for  too  long  a  time;  (c)  heating  the  curd  too  high;  (d) 
stirring  the  curd  too  much  in  the  whey  or  as  the  last  of 
the  whey  is  removed ;  (e)  using  too  much  salt ;  (/)  develop- 
ing of  too  much  acid  in  the  whey ;  (g)  curing  the  cheese 
in  too  hot  or  too  dry  a  curing-room;  (h)  not  piling  the 
curd  high  or  fast  enough  in  the  cheddaring  process. 

The  cause  should  be  located  and  the  corresponding 
remedy  found,  as  follows:  (a)  make  cheese  only  from 
whole  milk ;  (6)  draw  the  whey  sooner ;  (c)  firm  the  curd 
at  as  low  temperature  as  possible  in  the  whey ;  (d)  stir 
the  curd  in  the  whey  only  enough  to  keep  the  curd  par- 
ticles separated  but  do  not  hand-stir  it ;  (e)  use  less  salt ; 
(/)  develop  less  acid  in  the  whey ;  (g)  cure  the  cheese  in 
a  cool  moist  curing-room ;  (h)  pile  the  curd  sooner  and 
higher  during  the  cheddaring  process. 
.  The  number  of  causes  which  may  singly  or  in  combina- 
tion produce  dry  cheese  demands  experience  and  technical 
skill  that  calls  for  the  development  of  a  high  degree  of 
judgment. 

258.  Gassy  textured  cheese.  —  Gassy  cheese  has  large 
numbers  of  very  small  round  or  slightly  flattened  holes. 
When  round  these  are  called  "  pin-holes,"  and  when 
slightly  flattened  "  fish  eye  "  openings.  These  are  due 
to  the  formation  of  gas  by  the  micro-organisms  in  the 
cheese.  When  a  cheese  is  gassy,  it  usually  puffs  up 
from  gas  pressure  as  in  the  rising  of  bread.  If  enough 
gas  is  formed,  it  will  cause  the  cheese  to  break  or  crack 
open.  Instead  of  being  flat  on  the  ends,  such  a  cheese 
becomes  so  nearly  spherical  as  to  roll  from  the  shelf 
at  times. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  269 

The  gas-producing  organisms  enter  because  of  unclean 
conditions  somewhere  in  the  handling  of  the  milk  and 
the  making  of  the  cheese.  Some  of  the  common  sources 
of  gas  organisms  are:  (a)  unclean  milkers;  (6)  dirty 
cows ;  (c)  aerating  the  milk  in  impure  air,  especially  air 
from  hog-pens  where  the  whey  is  fed ;  (d)  allowing  the 
cows  to  wade  in  stagnant  water  or  in  mud  or  in  filthy' 
barnyards  and  then  not  thoroughly  cleaning  the  cows 
before  milking;  (e)  exposing  the  milk  to  the  dust  from 
hay  and  feed ;  (/)  dirty  whey  tanks ;  (g)  drawing  milk 
and  whey  in  the  same  cans  without  afterward  thoroughly 
washing  them;  (h)  unclean  utensils  in  the  factory; 
(i)  using  gassy  starter;  (j)  ripening  cheese  at  high 
temperatures. 

Some  of  these  causes  are  within  the  control  of  the 
cheese-maker  after  the  making  process  is  begun.  Many 
of  them  are  avoided  only  by  eternal  vigilance.  Among 
the  recommendations  for  meeting  gassy  curd  are  the 
following :  use  only  milk  produced  under  clean  sanitary 
conditions ;  use  a  clean  commercial  starter. 

If  gas  is  suspected  in  the  milk,  a  larger  percentage 
of  commercial  starter  should  be  used.  More  acid  must 
be  developed  before  the  whey  is  removed.  If  the  gas 
shows  while  cheddaring,  the  curd  should  be  piled  and 
repiled  until  the  holes  flatten  out  before  milling. 

The  curd  should  be  kept  warm  during  the  piling  or 
cheddaring  process.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  cover- 
ing the  vat  and  setting  a  pail  or  two  of  hot  water  in  it. 
After  milling,  the  curd  should  be  stirred  and  aired  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  before  salting.  This  will 
aerate  the  curd  and  allow  it  to  cool.  The  cheese  should 
then  be  placed  in  a  cool  curing-room.  (See  handling  of 
gassy  milk.) 


270  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

259.  Acidy,    pasty    or    soft   body    and    texture.  —  A 
cheese  with  acidy  body  may    be  either  hard  and  dry 
or   soft   and  moist.     It  has   a   mealy   or  sandy  feeling 
when    rubbed    between    the    fingers.     The  causes   and 
remedies  are  the  same  as  for  cheeses  with  acid  flavors. 
When  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  it  is  pasty  and  sticks 
to  the  fingers.     It  is  caused  by  the  cheese  containing 
too  much  water.     (See  control  of  moisture.) 

260.  Defects  in  color.  —  Any  color  which  is  not  uni- 
form is  a  defect.     The  proper  color  depends  on  the  market 
requirement.     Some  markets  prefer  a  white  and  others 
a  yellow  cheese ;    however,  if  the  color  is  uniform,  it  is 
not  defective. 

Mottled  color  is  a  spotted  or  variegated  marking  of  the 
cheese.  Several  causes  may  give  the  same  general  effect : 
(a)  uneven  distribution  of  moisture,  the  curd  having  extra 
moisture  being  lighter  in  color;  (6)  neglecting  to  strain 
the  starter ;  (c)  adding  the  starter  after  the  cheese  color 
has  been  added ;  (d)  mixing  the  curd  from  different  vats. 

Remedies  for  this  mottled  color  are :  (a)  to  maintain  a 
uniform  assimilation  of  moisture  (see  discussion  of  mois- 
ture) ;  (6)  to  strain  the  starter  to  break  up  the  lumps  be- 
fore adding  to  the  milk ;  (c)  to  add  all  of  the  starter  be- 
fore adding  the  cheese  color ;  (d)  not  to  mix  curds  from 
different  vats. 

Seamy  color.  —  In  "  seamy  "  colored  cheese,  the  out- 
line of  each  piece  of  curd  may  be  seen.  There  is  usually 
a  line  where  the  surfaces  of  the  curd  come  together.  It 
may  be  caused  by  the  pieces  of  curd  becoming  greasy 
or  so  cold  that  they  will  not  cement.  This  may  be 
remedied  by  having  the  curd  at  a  temperature  of  80° 
to  85°  F.  when  put  to  press.  If  it  is  greasy,  this  may 
be  removed  by  washing  the  curd  in  cold  water. 


CHEDDAR   CHEESE   RIPENING  271 

Acid  color.  —  This  is  a  bleached  or  faded  color  and  is 
caused  by  the  development  of  too  much  acid.  (See  acid 
flavor  for  causes  and  remedies,  page  266.) 

261.  Defects  in  finish.  —  Defects  of  this  class  differ 
from  those  previously  mentioned  in  being  entirely 
within  the  control  of  the  cheese-maker.  All  are  due  to 
carelessness  or  lack  of  skill  in  manipulation.  Anything 
which  detracts  from  the  neat,  clean,  workmanlike  appear- 
ance of  the  cheese  is  a  defect  that  may  interfere  with  the 
sale  of  an  article  intrinsically  good.  Some  of  the  common 
defects  are  :  (a)  unclean  surfaces  or  dirty  cheese ;  (b)  cracked 
rinds ;  (c)  moldy  surfaces ;  (d)  uneven  sizes ;  (e)  cracked 
cheese;  (/)  wrinkled  bandages;  (g)  uneven  edges. 

CHEDDAR    CHEESE    JUDGING 

Judging  of  cheese  is  the  comparison  of  the  qualities  of 
one  product  with  those  of  another.  To  make  this  easier 
it  is  customary  to  reduce  the  qualities  of  the  cheese  to  a 
numerical  basis.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a 
score-card,  which  recognizes  certain  qualities  and  gives 
to  each  a  numerical  value.  Each  of  these  score-cards 
gives  a  perfect  cheese  a  numerical  score  of  100.  Two 
score-cards  are  used  to  judge  cheese,  one  for  export  and 
the  other  for  home-trade  product.  The  latter  is  more 
commonly  used. 

EXPORT  SCORE-CARD  HOME-TRADE  SCORE-CARD 

Flavor 45     Flavor 50 

Body  and  texture      .     .  30  Body  and  texture    ...  25 

Color 15     Color 15 

Finish 10     Finish 10 

Total 100         Total 100 

The  same  qualities  are  recognized  in  each  score-card, 
but  different  numerical  values  are  given  them. 


272  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

262.  Securing  the  sample.  —  The  sample  of  cheese  to 
be  examined  is  best  obtained  by  means  of  a  cheese-trier 
(Fig.  55).     This  is  a  piece  of  steel  about  five  or  six  inches 
long  fitted  with   a   suitable  handle.     It  is   semicircular 
in  shape,  about  J  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     The 

edges  and  end 
are  sharpened 
to  aid  in  cut- 
ting. This  is 

FIG.  55.  -  A  cheese-trier.  inserted         into 

the  cheese  and  turned  around  and  then  drawn  out.  It 
removes  a  long  cylinder  of  cheese,  commonly  called 
a  "  plug."  This  plug  should  be  drawn  from  the  top 
rather  than  from  the  side  of  the  cheese,  because  when 
the  bandage  is  cut  it  often  splits,  due  to  the  pressure 
against  it  and  so  exposes  the  cheese. 

263.  How  to  determine  quality.  —  As  soon  as  the  plug 
has  been  removed,  it    should  be  passed  quickly  under 
the  nose  to  detect  any  volatile  odors  which  are  liable 
to  leave  the  cheese  quickly.     Next,  the  compactness  of 
the  plug  should  be  noticed  and  the  color  carefully  ex- 
amined.    Then  the  outer  end  of   the    plug    should    be 
broken  off  and  placed  back  in  the  cheese  in  the  hole 
made  by  the  trier.     It  should  be  about  an  inch  long  and 
pushed  in  so  that  the  surface  of  the  cheese  is  smooth. 
This    prevents    mold   and   insects   entering    the  cheese. 
Usually  the  cheese  will  mold  after  a  short  time  where 
the  plug  has  been  removed.     The  remainder  of  the  plug 
should  be  saved  for  determining  the  flavor  and  the  body 
and  texture. 

The  flavor  can  be  determined  by  the  first  odor  obtained 
from  the  cheese  on  the  trier  and  by  mixing  or  crushing  a 
piece  of  the  plug  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  and 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE  RIPENING  273 

then  noting  the  odor.  Mixing  and  thoroughly  warming 
causes  the  odor  to  be  much  more  pronounced.  The 
cheese  should  seldom  be  tasted  to  determine  the  flavor, 
for  when  many  are  to  be  judged,  they  all  taste  alike 
after  the  first  five  or  six.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
cheese  adhering  to  the  teeth,  tongue  and  other  parts  of 
the  mouth,  making  it  difficult  to  cleanse  the  mouth 
sufficiently.  The  body  and  texture  can  be  determined 
by  the  appearance  and  the  feeling  of  the  cheese  when 
rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  The  body 
and  texture  are  distinct,  yet  they  are  more  or  less  inter- 
changed. The  body  refers  to  the  cheese  as  a  whole  and 
the  texture  to  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  whole. 
The  openness  of  texture  or  the  holes  can  be  noted  when 
the  plug  is  first  removed.  The  firmness  of  body  and 
smoothness  of  texture  can  be  determined  when  the 
cheese  is  rubbed  between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  The 
color  can  be  judged  when  the  plug  is  first  removed. 
The  finish  or  appearance  may  be  noted  either  before 
or  after  the  other  qualities  by  carefully  examining  the 
cheese. 

Cheddar  cheese  should  have  a  neat,  clean,  attractive 
appearance;  when  cut  it  should  show  a  close,  solid,  uni- 
formly colored  interior.  It  should  have  ,a  clear,  pleasant, 
mild  aroma  and  a  nutty  flavor.  It  should  possess  a 
mellow,  silky,  meaty  texture  and  when  rubbed  between 
the  thumb  and  fore-finger  should  be  smooth  and  free  from 
hard  particles. 

264.  Causes  of  variations  in  score.  —  It  is  very  seldom, 
if  ever,  that  a  cheese  is  given  a  perfect  score,  for  it  usually 
has  one  or  more  defects  which  may  be  hardly  noticeable 
or  very  pronounced.  The  seriousness  of  the  defect  is  de- 
termined by  the  individual  tastes  of  the  judges  and  the 


274 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


Sample... 


CHEESE   SCORE-CARD 
Date.... 


SCORE 


REMARKS 


Flavor 

50 

Body  and 
Texture 

25 

Color 

15 

Finish  

10 

Total..    .  . 

100 

Recommendations. 


Name  of  Judge... 


SUGGESTIVE    TERMS 


FLAVOR 

Desirable 
Clean      Pleasant  Aroma     Nutty  Flavor 

Undesirable 

Due  to  Farm  Conditions 
Weedy   Feedy   Cowy    Old   Milk  Bitter 

Due  to  Factory  Conditions 

Too  much  acid     Too  little  acid 

Due  to  either  Farm  or  Factory  Conditions 

Yeasty         Fruity         Fishy         Rancid 

Sour  Bitter          Sweet         Tainted 

BODY   AND   TEXTURE 

Desirable 
Smooth        Waxy        Silky        Close 

Undesirable 

Pasty    Greasy    Curdy     Mealy     Lumpy 
Corky       Loose       Gassy          Yeasty 
Acidy        Sweet       Watery       Too  dry 


COLOR 

Desirable 


Uniform 

Undesirable 

Streaked  Mottled  Acid  cut 

White  specks        Wavy  Too  high 

Seamy  Rust  spots  Too  light 

FINISH 

Desirable 
Clean  surfaces  Neat  bandage  Attractive 

Undesirable 

Wrinkled  bandage  Greasy 

Unclean  surfaces  No  end  caps 

Cracked  rinds  Uneven  edges 

Undesirable  size 


CHEDDAR  CHEESE  RIPENING  275 

market  requirements.  It  is  customary  for  the  judge  to 
pick  out  several  samples  and  score  them  in  order  to 
fix  the  standard  and  if  there  are  several  judges  this  serves 
to  unify  their  standard.  Ordinarily  judges  will  vary 
because  of  their  individual  tastes,  unless  they  begin  with 
a  uniform  standard. 

Certain  markets  require  cheese  with  given  qualities 
which  on  other  markets  would  be  considered  defects. 
For  example,  the  Boston  market  requires  a  very  soft, 
pasty  cheese  which  other  markets  would  consider  un- 
desirable. 

The  cheese  is  constantly  undergoing  changes  due  to  the 
ripening  agents  so  that  it  may  not  always  be  scored  the 
same.  For  example,  a  cheese  may  have  little  or  no  flavor 
and  after  several  weeks  a  very  considerable  flavor  may 
have  developed.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  action  of 
the  ripening  agents,  and  therefore  the  second  time  it 
would  be  scored  differently. 

265.  The  score-card.  —  When  judging  several  samples 
of  cheese,  the  type  of  score-card  on  the  opposite  page  is 
used  for  each  one. 

This  gives  the  date  of  judging  and  the  sample  number, 
the  judge's  name  and  reasons  for  cutting  the  score  and 
recommendations  to  avoid  these  troubles. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE   SWISS   AND    ITALIAN  GROUPS 

CERTAIN  varieties  of  hard  cheese  of  foreign  origin  are 
now  made  to  some  extent  in  this  country.  If  not 
manufactured  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the 
demand,  the  remainder  is  imported.  These  hard  cheeses 
are  now  considered. 

SWISS   CHEESE 

Swiss  cheese,  variously  known  as  Gruyere,  Emmenthal, 
Schweitzer  and  Swiss,  had  its  origin  in  the  Alpine  cantons 
of  Switzerland.  From  this  region  its  manufacture  has 
been  carried  by  Swiss  dairy-men  and  emigrant  farmers 
into  widely  separate  lands.  The  Swiss  colonies  settled 
in  the  United  States  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  in  Catta- 
raugus  County,  New  York;  in  Wayne,  Stark,  Summit, 
Columbiana  and  Tuscarawas  counties  of  Ohio,  and  in 
Green  and  Dodge  counties  in  Wisconsin.  Of  all  these, 
the  Wisconsin  colonies  have  become  the  most  extensive. 
Similar  colonies  have  developed  the  making  of  this  type 
of  cheese  in  Sweden  and  Finland. 

266.  The  Swiss  factory.  —  Swiss  cheese  cannot  be 
made  in  a  vat  like  other  types  for  reasons  that  will  be 
explained  later.  In  place  of  the  vat  is  used  a  kettle, 
generally  of  copper,  and  it  may  or  may  not  be  jacketed 
for  steam  or  for  hot  water  (Fig.  56).  These  kettles  vary 
in  capacity  from  600  to  3000  pounds  of  milk.  The  cheese- 

276 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          277 

maker  takes  the  best  care  possible  of  his  kettle,  for  an 
unclean  utensil  is  one  of  the  easiest  sources  of  contamina- 
tion of  the  milk.  When  the  kettle  is  not  jacketed,  and 
it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  this  has  been  done,  it  is 
suspended  in  a  fireplace  by 
means  of  a  crane  arrange- 
ment. 

This  fireplace  uses  wood, 
and  is  built  of  brick  or  stone, 
so  that  the  kettle  rests  on  the 
edge  and  is  provided  with  a 
door  which  swings  upon 
another  crane,  and  can  be 
closed  while  the  fire  is  going. 
When  the  kettle  is  swung  on  _ 

&  FIG.  56.  —  Swiss-cheese  kettle. 

a    crane,    it    is    possible    to 

swing  it  under  the  weigh-stand  for  filling.  This  requires 
a  lid  to  swing  down  over  the  fire,  and  keep  the  room 
free  from  smoke.  The  chimney  generally  has  a  rather 
high  stack  to  secure  a  good  draft.  This  kettle  is 
fastened  to  the  crane  by  a  large  iron  band  passing  around 
the  neck,  to  which  a  bail  or  handle  is  attached.  The 
kettle  may  be  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  simple 
screw  on  this  beam.  The  crane  consists  of  a  heavy  beam 
working  in  sockets  in  the  floor  and  a  beam  or  cross  brace, 
which  has  another  and  shorter  beam  braced  to  it,  to  take 
the  weight  of  the  kettle. 

The  weigh-stand,  and  its  efficient  location,  is  a  matter 
of  extreme  importance.  It  is  elevated  a  little  above 
the  remainder  of  the  floor  to  allow  gravity  to  do  the 
work.  The  next  most  important  equipment  is  the 
press  and  draining  table.  The  table  is  made  of  wood  or 
stone,  and  has  a  slight  slope  to  allow  the  whey  to  drain 


278  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

off.  The  press  is  generally  a  jack  screw  which,  braced 
against  a  beam,  will  exert  an  enormous  pressure  on  the 
table  below. 

Swiss  cheeses  are  made  in  two  styles,  the  "  round  " 
or  drum  and  the  "block"  or  rectangular  forms,  each  of 
which  has  its  advantages.  For  the  round  style,  which 
is  most  commonly  made,  the  forms  for  hooping  are  of 
metal  or  of  elm  wood,  and  consist  of  strips  of  a  given 
width,  generally  six  inches,  but  of  an  undetermined  length. 
These  strips  are  then  made  into  a  circle  and  held  by  a 
cord,  which  is  easily  lengthened  or  shortened,  thus  vary- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  hoop. 

Besides  these  hoops,  cheese  boards  or  followers  are 
needed.  These  are  heavy  circular  boards,  of  a  size  to 
fit  that  of  the  cheese  generally  made,  and  are  banded  with 
iron  around  the  edge  and  cross-braced  on  the  bottom 
for  rigidity.  The  small  tools  of  the  factory  consist  of 
knives  to  cut  the  curd,  and  of  a  "  Swiss  harp  "  or  other 
similar  tool  to  stir  the  curd.  Many  clean  bandages  are 
also  needed,  and  a  kettle  brake. 

267.  The  milk.  —  Swiss  cheese  requires  clean  sweet 
milk.  Dirt,  high  acid  and  infections  with  undesirable 
bacteria  involve  difficulties  of  manufacture  and  frequent 
losses  of  cheese.  One  common  practice  rejects  milk  if 
it  shows  acidity  above  0.15  per  cent.  To  secure  milk 
in  this  condition,  factories  are  small  and  located  so  close 
to  the  producing  farms  as  to  secure  1000  to  3000  pounds 
of  milk  delivered  warm  from  the  cow  twice  a  day.  The 
cheese  is  made  twice  daily  from  this  fresh  milk.  If, 
however,  milk  is  properly  cared  for,  it  is  possible  to  mix 
night's  and  morning's  milk  without  bad  results.  In  fact, 
in  working  experimentally  with  high  grade  milk  and 
taking  precautions  against  loss  of  fat,  it  has  been 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          279 

necessary  to  skim  (separate)  part  of  the  milk,  thus  re- 
ducing the  ratio  of  fat  to  casein.  Analysis  of  good  Swiss 
cheeses  shows  that  the  desired  texture  is  more  uniformly 
obtained  with  milk  in  which  the  fat  is  less  than  the  normal 
ratio.  This  assumes  that  the  manufacturing  loss  is  kept 
down  so  that  the  fat  removed  offsets  the  extra  loss  from 
curd-breaking. 

268.  Rennet  extract.  —  Most  Swiss  cheese-makers  pre- 
fer to  make  their  own  rennet  extract  from  the  stomach. 
This  results  in  a  product  which  is  not  uniform  in  strength 
and  so  requires  good  judgment  to  secure  the  desired  coagu- 
lation in  the   allotted    time.     Some    cheese-makers  roll 
fifteen  to  twenty  well  salted  calves'  stomachs  together 
and  dry  them.     From  this  they  cut  off  a  definite  amount 
each  day  to  be  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours  in  two  to 
five   quarts   of   whey   at   86°   F.     Four    quarts   of   this 
solution  added  to  2000  pounds  of  milk  at  90°  F.  should 
produce  a  curd  ready  for  cutting  in  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes. 

269.  Starter.  —  Makers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  use  of 
"  starters "   for  Swiss  cheese.     Those   opposed  to   such 
use  say  that  a  starter    will    give  the  cheese  a  decided 
Cheddar  flavor,  while  those  in  favor  of  it  state  that  it 
will   control  undesirable  fermentations,   and  that,   with 
the  use  of  a  starter,  it  is  possible  to  make  Swiss  cheese 
throughout  the  year,  and  have  uniform  success. 

Doane,1  working  with  Bacillus  Bulgarians  as  a  starter, 
found  that  these  starters  did  not  always  overcome  the 
undesirable  fermentations.  If  a  cheese-maker  is  having 
difficulty  to  develop  the  holes  or  "  eyes,"  this  may  be 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  and  E.  E.  Eldredge,  The  use  of  Bacillus  Bul- 
garicus  in  starters  for  making  Swiss  or  Emmenthal  cheese,  Dept 
of  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  148,  1915. 


280  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

overcome  by  making  a  starter 1  as  follows  from  good 
cheese  and  whey  or  milk :  Select  a  cheese  which  has  the 
desirable  "  eyes  "  or  holes  and  a  good  flavor. .  Grind  up 
some  of  this  and  add  about  J  of  a  pound  to  one  gallon  of 
milk  or  whey.  Hold  this  for  twenty-four  hours  at  a  warm 
temperature  (85°  to  90°  F.).  Strain  it  into  the  vat  of 
milk  just  before  the  rennet  is  added. 

270.  The  making  process.  —  The  milk  is  delivered 
twice  a  day  without  cooling.  It  usually  reaches  the 
factory  at  a  temperature  of  92°  to  96°  F.  It  is  strained 
into  the  kettle,  and  starter  and  rennet  added  at  the  same 
temperature  as  received.  (For  method  of  adding  rennet, 
see  Chapter  V.)  Enough  rennet  should  be  used  to  give 
a  coagulation  ready  for  cutting  in  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 
The  firmness  of  the  curd  is  tested  by  inserting  the  index 
finger  in  an  oblique  position,  then  raising  it  slightly  and 
with  the  thumb  of  the  same  hand  starting  the  curd  to 
break  or  crack.  When  the  curd  is  coagulated  ready  for 
cutting,  it  will  give  a  clear  break  over  the  finger. 

It  is  important  to  keep  the  temperature  uniform  while 
coagulation  is  in  process,  and  this  is  best  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  a  little  pan  arrangement  which  fits  into 
the  top  of  the  kettle.  When  this  is  full  of  water  at  100° 
F.,  the  temperature  of  the  air  above  the  milk  will  be  about 
90°  F.  When  the  curd  is  ready  for  cutting,  a  scoop 
may  be  used  and  the  top  layer  carefully  turned  under  to 
equalize  the  temperature  more  closely. 

Cutting  the  curd.  —  In  some  cheese  factories,  knives 
resembling  Cheddar  cheese  knives  are  employed  to  cut 
the  curd.  In  other  factories,  a  "  Swiss  harp  "  is  used 
to  break  the  curd.  The  curd  is  usually  cut  or  broken 

1  N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  and  Am.  Creamery,  Vol.  37,  no.  25, 
page  1112,  Starter  for  Swiss  cheese. 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          281 

into  pieces  about  the  size  of  kernels  of  corn.  The 
practice  of  "  breaking  "  curd  instead  of  cutting  it  with 
sharp  curd-knives  produces  excessive  loss  at  times. 
Experimental  study  has  shown  that  the  loss  of  fat 
may  be  kept  as  low  as  0.3  per  cent  if  modern  curd- 
knives  are  substituted  for  the  breaking  tool  formerly 
used.  Study  of  Swiss  cheeses  of  all  grades  supports 
the  opinion  that  the  removal  of  a  small  part  of  fat 
from  usual  grades  of  factory  milk  produces  a  better 
quality  of  product  than  the  use  of  rich  whole  milk.  This 
may  be  accomplished  through  the  escape  of  fat  in  the  whey 
on  account  of  breaking  the  curd  and  stirring  it  vigorously, 
or  by  skimming  a  part  of  the  milk  which  is  then  curdled, 
cut  and  stirred  under  such  conditions  as  to  minimize 
the  loss  of  fat. 

Cooking  the  curd.  —  After  cutting,  the  curd  is  stirred 
in  the  whey  for  about  twenty  minutes  before  the  steam 
is  turned  on  and  is  then  heated  to  128°  to  135°  F.  While 
this  heating  is  in  progress,  constant  stirring  must  be 
given  to  avoid  matting.  This  excessive  stirring  breaks 
the  curd  up  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  wheat  kernels, 
and  accounts  for  the  large  fat  loss,  which  is  one  of  the 
main  sources  of  loss  in  making  Swiss  cheese.  This  stir- 
ring is  accomplished  by  a  rotary  motion,  and  the  use  of 
a  brake,  which  is  a  piece  of  wood  closely  fitting  the  side 
of  the  kettle.  This  creates  an  eddy  in  the  current  at  that 
point  and  gives  a  more  uniform  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture. The  process  of  cooking  takes  from  thirty  to  forty 
minutes,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  degree  of  tough- 
ness may  be  determined  by  making  a  roll  of  curd 
in  the  hand,  and  noticing  the  break  when  it  is  given  a 
quick  'flip.  A  short  sharp  break  indicates  the  desired 
toughness. 


282  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Draining  and  hooping.  —  In  this  process,  the  cheese- 
makers1  skill  is  displayed.  With  the  hoop  prepared,  and 
the  curd  at  the  correct  stage  of  toughness,  the  operator 
takes  a  press  cloth,  wets  it  in  whey,  slips  it  over  a  flexible 
iron  ring  which  can  be  made  to  fit  the  shape  of  the  kettle, 
gives  the  contents  of  the  kettle  a  few  swift  revolutions, 
then  suddenly  reverses  the  motion,  with  the  result  that 
the  contents  form  into  a  cone,  and  the  ring  and  bandage 
are  dexterously  slipped  under  this  cone,  and  drawn  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  whey  with  a  rope  or  chain  and  pulley. 
This  part  of  the  process  is  the  most  important,  as  a  cheese 
must  have  a  smooth  firm  rind,  else  it  will  quickly  crack. 
With  too  large  a  batch  of  milk,  the  curd  can  be  cut  into 
two  pieces  and  hooped  separately.  With  the  mass  of 
curd  at  the  top  of  the  whey,  the  piece  of  perforated  iron 
plate  just  the  size  of  the  hoop  is  slipped  under  the  mass, 
and  attached  to  the  pulley  by  four  chains.  Then  the 
top  of  the  mass  is  carefully  leveled  off,  because  while  still 
in  the  whey,  it  cannot  mat  badly  and  so  tend  to  develop 
a  rind  crack.  Now  the  mass  is  raised  clear  of  the  whey, 
and  run  along  a  short  track  to  the  drain  table,  where  it  is 
put  in  the  press. 

Pressing.  —  The  mass  of  curd  is  dropped  into  the 
hoop,  the  edges  of  the  cloth  carefully  folded  under, 
and  the  cloth  laid  on  top,  then  the  pressure  is  ap- 
plied, gradually  at  first,  but  increasing  until  the  final 
pressure  is  about  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  to  a  pound 
of  cheese. 

During  the  first  few  hours  the  cloths  must  be  changed 
frequently,  and  the  cheese  carefully  turned  over  each 
time,  to  secure  a  more  uniform  rind.  After  a  time  the 
changes  are  less  frequent,  and  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 
hours  the  cheese  is  taken  to  the  salting-room. 


THE  SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          283 

Salting  may  be  done  by  either  the  brine  or  dry  method. 
To  prepare  a  brine  bath,  add  salt  to  a  tank  of  water 
until  it  will  float  an  egg,  and  add  a  pailful  or  more  of  salt 
every  few  days  thereafter  to  keep  up  the  strength.  The 
cheese  is  then  placed  in  this  bath  and  left  for  three  to  five 
days,  depending  on  the  saltiness  desired.  As  the  cheese 
floats  with  a  little  of  the  rind  above  the  surface,  it  should 
be  turned  a  few  times  to  insure  uniformity  of  salting. 
With  dry  salting,  the  salt  is  rubbed  on  the  cheese  by  hand 
or  with  a  stiff  brush,  and  any  excess  carefully  wiped  off, 
leaving  only  a  slight  sprinkle  on  the  surface  to  work  into 
the  cheese. 

271.  Curing  Swiss.  —  From  the  salting-room,  the  cheese 
goes  to  the  first  one  of  two  curing-rooms,  where  the  unique 
process  of  the  development  of  the  characteristic  eyes 
takes  place. 

During  the  curing  period  of  either  round  or  block 
Swiss,  constant  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  cheese. 
They  must  be  turned  every  day  at  first,  and  then  every 
second  or  third  day  toward  the  end  of  the  curing  period. 
Also,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  no  mold  starts 
growing,  as  it  will  soon  work  into  the  cheese,  and 
spoil  its  flavor.  The  best  way  of  preventing  mold  is 
by  washing  the  cheese,  in  either  clean  or  slightly  salted 
water,  as  often  as  possible.  A  stiff  brush  is  mostly 
used  for  this. 

The  development  of  the  "  eyes  "  or  holes  is  the  diffi- 
cult part  of  the  whole  process.  It  is  not  known  exactly 
what  causes  the  development,  but  it  is  attributed  to 
micro-organisms  or  enzymes.  The  gas  in  these  eyes  has 
been  examined  and  found  to  be  carbon  dioxide  and  free 
nitrogen.  Sometimes  hydrogen  is  found.  This  comes 
from  the  original  fermentation  of  the  milk-sugar  and 


284  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

remains  to  contaminate  the  normal  eye.  The  nitrogen 1 
is  included  from  the  original  air.  Propionic  acid  is 
formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  eyes,  and  they  are 
said  to  be  the  result  of  a  propionic  ferment  of  lactic 
acid.  The  interior  of  the  cheese  is  anaerobic,  due  to 
low  permeability  and  high  oxygen-absorbing  quality. 
This  propionic  bacterium  cannot,  however,  account  for 
all  the  carbon  dioxide  produced. 

After  the  eyes  have  started,  their  further  development 
depends  on  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air,  and  on 
the  moisture  of  the  cheese,  as  regulated  by  the  amount 
of  salt  used.  The  first  room  has  a  temperature  of  70°  F. 
to  start  the  eyes,  which  is  later  lowered  in  the  second 
curing-room  to  about  60°  to  check  the  development. 
When  any  local  fermentive  action  starts,  it  may  be 
checked  by  rubbing  salt  on  the  affected  part.  The 
humidity  of  the  room  is  very  important,  because  a 
cheese  will  quickly  dry  out  in  a  dry  room,  due  to  evap- 
oration from  the  surface.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  well 
to  spray  the  floor  with  water,  or  to  have  a  steam  jet  in 
the  room. 

If  the  curd  has  been  cooked  too  long  the  cheese  may 
be  too  dry.  Such  cheeses  may  be  piled  two  or  more  deep 

1  Clark,  W.  M.,  On  the  formation  of  "eyes"  in  Emmenthal 
cheese,  Jour.  Dairy  Sci.  1  (1917),  no.  2,  pages  91-113. 

Among  important  studies  of  Swiss  cheese  ripening  are  the 
following:  Freudenreich,  E.  v.,  and  Orla  Jensen,  Ueber  die  in 
Emmentalerkase  stattfindende  Proprionsauregarung,  Centralb.  f . 
Bakt.  etc.  2  Abt.  17,  page  529. 

Jensen,  Orla,  Biologische  Studien  iiber  den  Kasereifungs- 
prozess  unter  spezieller  Berucksichtigung  der  fltichtigen  Fett- 
sauren,  Centralb.  f.  Bakt.  etc.  2  Abt.  13  (1904),  page  161. 

Eldredge,  E.  E.,  and  L.  A.  Rogers,  The  bacteriology  of  cheese 
of  the  Emmenthal  type,  Centralb.  f.  Bakt.  2  Abt.  40  (1914),  no. 
1/8,  pages  5-21. 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          285 

in  the  curing-room.  It  is  held  by  some  cheese-makers 
that  this  process  causes  them  to  absorb  more  moisture. 
Probably  this  is  due  to  the  checking  of  evaporation. 

The  development  of  the  "  eyes  "  may  be  watched  by 
trying  the  following  test :  Place  the  middle  finger  on  the 
cheese  and  let  the  first  finger  slip  from  it,  striking  the 
cheese  smartly;  a  dull  sound  indicates  solidity,  while  a 
ring  indicates  a  hole,  and  an  expert  maker  can  tell  the 
size  of  the  holes  by  the  sound.  This  requires  long 
practice  for  the  operator  to  become  proficient. 

After  a  cheese  has  remained  in  the  first  room  for  about 
two  weeks  and  the  holes  are  well  started,  it  is  removed 
to  the  second  curing-room,  which  is  held  at  a  cooler 
temperature  and  slightly  drier  atmosphere.  The  cheeses 
are  held  in  this  room  from  three  to  ten  months,  depend- 
ing on  market  conditions,  and  capacity  of  the  curing- 
rooms.  In  Switzerland,  it  is  customary  to  hold  cheese 
to  secure  a  well  ripened  product,  while  in  America  most 
of  the  cheeses  are  shipped  comparatively  green,  hence 
do  not  bring  so  high  a  price. 

272.  Block  Swiss.  —  In  making  block  Swiss,  the  same 
procedure  is  followed  through  the  cooking  stage.  Then 
the  curd  is  pressed  in  a  square  form  or  in  one  large  piece, 
each  form  six  inches  square  on  the  ends  and  twenty  inches 
long,  and  later  cut  into  sections.  These  are  then  pressed, 
salted  and  cured  in  the  same  way  as  round  forms.  In 
this  type  of  cheese  there  is  a  much  smaller  cross-section; 
therefore  the  development  of  holes  is  much  more  easily 
controlled  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  the  salt 
can  work  into  the  cheese  and  control  undesirable  fer- 
ments. As  it  is  easy  to  control,  this  variety  is  made  in 
the  fall  and  winter  when  the  ferments  are  especially 
hard  to  keep  in  check.  However,  this  cheese  has  the 


286  THE  BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

disadvantage  of  cutting  eye-development   short  by  the 
rapid  entrance  of  salt. 

The  curing  consists  of  the  developing  of  the  flavor  and 
eyes  and  the  changing  in  body  and  texture.  Just  what 
causes  these  changes  is  not  known. 

273.  Shipment.  —  When  ready  for  shipment,  the  drum 
cheeses  of  the  same  general  diameter  are  sorted  out  and 
packed  four  to  six  in  a  cask.     Care  must  be  taken  to  put 
boards  between  them  to  prevent  sticking.     These  are 
called  scale-boards,  and  are  made  of  thin  sections  of  wood 
fiber.     The  cheeses  are  crowded  into  the  cask  to  make  a 
snug  fit,  and  the  head  carefully  fastened. 

274.  Qualities  of  Swiss  cheese.  —  The  peculiar  Swiss 
cheese  flavor  may  be  characterized  as  a  hazel-nut  taste. 
It  is  a  trifle  sweet  and  very  tempting.     The  "  eyes  "  or 
holes  should  be  about  the  size  of  a  cherry  with  a  dull 
shine  to  the  inner  lining.     The  "  eyes  "  usually  contain 
a    small    amount    of    a    briny    tasting    liquid.       These 
eyes  should  be  uniformly  distributed.     The  color  should 
be   uniform.      The   cheese   should   have   a   neat,   clean, 
attractive    appearance,    and    the    rind    should    not    be 
cracked  or  broken. 

There  are  several  common  defects  in  Swiss  cheese. 
If  the  milk  is  not  clean-flavored,  the  cheese  will  have 
the  same  flavor  as  the  milk.  The  greatest  difficulty  is 
to  produce  the  eyes  or  holes.  A  cheese  which  does 
not  have  these  is  called  "  blind."  A  product  which  has 
many  small  pin-holes  due  to  gassy  fermentations  is 
called  a  "  niszler  " ;  this  means  a  cheese  with  a  thousand 
eyes.  If  gas  forms  in  the  cheese  and  causes  cracks,  it 
is  called  "  glaesler."  If  the  cheese  contains  too  much 
moisture,  it  will  be  soft  and  pasty.  Such  a  cheese  does 
not  readily  form  eyes. 


THE  SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          287 

275.  Composition  and  yield.  —  A  large  number  of  analy- 
ses of  Swiss  cheese  have  been  made  but  there  is  wide 
variation.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  composition 
and  yield  are  both  dependent  on  the  following  factors: 
composition  of  the  milk,  losses  during  manufacture, 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  cheese.  The  losses  in  Swiss 
cheese  are  much  larger  than  with  some  of  the  other  hard 
cheeses,  such  as  Cheddar.  This  is  because  more  fat  is 
lost  in  the  whey,  due  to  breaking  instead  of  cutting 
the  curd  and  the  subsequent  hard  stirring.  The  pos- 
sibility of  reducing  these  excessive  losses  has  already 
been  indicated. 

Swiss  cheeses  of  high  grade  show  about  the  following 
range  of  composition: 

Water  ......  30-34  per  cent 

Fat       30-34  per  cent 

Protein 26-30  per  cent 

Ash 3-5  per  cent 

Salt  (NaCl)   ....  1-1.4  per  cent 

The  water-content  of  this  type  of  cheese  is  low  and  the 
protein-content  is  proportionately  high.  Both  condi- 
tions lead  to  firm  textures,  long  ripening  and  long  keeping 
periods. 

The  following  score-card  is  used  to  judge  both  block 
and  drum  Swiss  cheese : 

Flavor 35 

Appearance  on  trier  holes      ...     30 

Texture 20 

Salt        .     . 10 

Style 5 

100 


288  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

The  yield  of  Swiss  cheese  varies  from  8  to  11  pounds 
to  100  pounds  of  milk.  The  more  solids  in  the  milk,  the 
more  moisture  incorporated  in  the  cheese;  the  smaller 
the  loss  of  solids  in  the  manufacturing  process,  the 
larger  will  be  the  yield  from  a  given  amount  of  milk. 

THE   ITALIAN    GROUP1 

A  group  of  varieties,  best  known  in  America  by  Parme- 
san, are  made  in  Italy  with  related  forms  in  Greece  and 
European  Turkey.  These  forms  are  very  hard,  usually 
uncolored,  with  small  eyes  or  holes.  They  are  made  in 
large  cheeses  which  ripen  very  slowly.  Cow's  milk  is 
regularly  used  for  Parmesan  and  Grana  in  northern 
Italy ;  other  varieties  contain  goat  or  sheep  milk  or  vari- 
ous mixtures.  Aside  from  Parmesan,  few  of  the  other 
forms  are  known  outside  the  place  of  origin  except  as 
they  are  exported  in  a  small  way  to  satisfy  the  demand 
of  emigrants  from  these  regions. 

276.  Parmesan.  —  One  type  of  Italian  cheese,  how- 
ever, the  Parmesan,  has  become  very  widely  known.  In 
general  the  consuming  trade  does  not  discriminate  be- 
tween Parmesan,  Grana  and  closely  related  forms.  Par- 
mesan is  made  in  large  cheeses  which  require  one  to  three 
years  for  proper  ripening ;  in  texture  it  is  very  hard  with 
small  eyes  or  holes  formed  by  very  slow  fermentation. 
Such  cheeses  are  ripened  in  large  storehouses  in  which 

1  Gorini,  C.,  Studi  sulla  fabricatione  razionale  del  fromaggi 
Grana,  Boll.  uff.  del  Ministero  Agr.  Ind.  e  Comm.  Anno  X, 
serie  C,  Fasc.  10,  pages  1-7,  Roma,  1911. 

Gorini,  C.,  On  the  distribution  of  bacteria  in  Grana  cheese, 
Centralb.  f.  Bakt.  etc.  2  Abt.  12  (1904),  pages  78-81. 

Fascetti,  G.,  The  technological  chemistry  of  the  manufacture 
of  Grana  cheese  in  Reggio,  Staz.  Sper.  Agr.  Ital.  47  (1914), 
no.  8,  pages  541-568. 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS          289 

hundreds  and  even  thousands  are  brought  together 
and  cared  for  by  experts.  The  surfaces  of  these  cheeses 
are  kept  clean  and  free  from  insects  by  rubbing  with 
linseed  oil.  So  hard  are  these  forms  that  the  cheese- 
trier  is  not  used  in  testing,  but  the  texture  of  the  surface 
is  tested  by  pricking  with  an  awl-like  tool  and  the  stage 
of  eye-formation  and  associated  ripening  is  determined 
by  the  sound  given  out  when  the  cheeses  are  tapped  with 
a  hammer. 

When  ripe,  the  cheeses  of  this  group  are  used  in  cooking 
principally.  The  broken  cheese  is  grated  and  added  to 
macaroni,  spaghetti  and  other  cooked  cheese  dishes. 
Parmesan  is  usually  made  from  partly  skimmed-milk ; 
the  ratio  of  fat  to  protein  in  analysis  runs  from  1 : 2  to  3  :  4 
in  contrast  to  the  normal  relation  of  about  4 :  3  in  whole- 
milk  cheese.  In  water-content  much  variation  is  found, 
but  ripe  Parmesan  is  usually  about  30  per  cent  water. 
Other  members  of  the  group  are  made  with  different 
amounts  of  skimming,  some  of  them  from  whole  milk. 
The  group  in  general  represents  the  requirements  of  cheese 
for  the  trade  of  warmer  regions  (see  Mayo  and  Elling) : 
(1)  a  low  fat-content  so  incorporated  that  the  cheese  does 
not  become  greasy  or  oily  in  hot  weather ;  (2)  a  water- 
content  low  enough  to  prevent  rapid  spoilage  during  the 
necessary  exposure  of  handling  under  warm  conditions. 

The  equipment  for  Parmesan  manufacture  has  more 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  Swiss  factory  than  the 
English  and  American  cheeses.  The  milk  is  curdled  in 
deep  copper  kettles  (Fig.  57),  below  which  there  is  com- 
monly a  provision  for  direct  heating  by  fire  which  is 
sometimes  carried  on  a  truck,  and  therefore  can  be  with- 
drawn when  heating  is  sufficient.  The  steam-jacketed 
kettle  has  replaced  this  earlier  form  to  a  large  measure. 


290  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

The  general  character  of  the  manufacturing  process  is 
indicated  in  the  following  abstract  of  one  of  the  methods. 
Many  variations  are  to  be  found.  The  milk  for 
Parmesan  is  allowed  to  stand  overnight.  Some  acidity 
is,  therefore,  developed  in  contrast  to  the  absolutely 
fresh  condition  of  the  milk  used  in  Swiss  and  the 
acidification  developed  during  the  making  of  Cheddar 
(Fascetti).  It  is  then  skimmed,  heated  to  72°  to  75°  F. 
Rennet  is  added  in  amount  sufficient  to  produce  firm 
curd  in  one  hour  or  slightly  less.  When  the  curd  is  firm, 


FIG.  57.  —  Parmesan  cheese  kettles. 

a  wood  fire  is  made  under  the  kettle  and  the  curd  is 
broken  with  a  special  implement  into  small  particles. 
After  breaking,  four  grains  of  powdered  sulfur  to  twenty- 
two  gallons  of  milk  are  added.  The  curd  is  stirred  with 
a  rake.  By  the  time  the  temperature  rises  to  77°  F., 
the  curd  should  be  in  very  small  pieces.  Stirring  and 
heating  continue  until  the  temperature  reaches  131°  F. 
At  this  temperature,  it  stands  fifteen  minutes,  after  which 
it  is  removed  from  the  fire  (or  the  fire  is  drawn).  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  whey  is  then  drawn.  The  cheese-maker 
then  collects  the  curd  into  a  compact  lump  under  which 


THE   SWISS   AND   ITALIAN   GROUPS 


291 


he  slips  a  cheese  cloth.  With  the  aid  of  an  assistant  he 
removes  the  mass  to  a  perforated  vessel  for  draining. 
After  this  the  curd  goes  into  large  wooden  hoops,  lined 
with  cloth,  which  stand  upon  a  slanting  draining  table 
until  evening.  No  pressure  is  used.  Before  night  they 
are  taken  to  the  cellar.  The  cloths  are  removed  next 


FIG.  58.  —  A  typical  cheese-market  in  France. 

day.  After  standing  four  days,  they  are  salted  by  cover- 
ing the  upper  surface  with  coarse  salt.  This  is  repeated 
with  daily  turning  for  twenty  days,  then  salted  on  alter- 
nate days  for  another  period  of  twenty  days.  At  the 
end  of  the  forty  days'  salting,  the  cheese  is  removed  from 
the  hoop,  scraped,  sprinkled  with  whey  and  the  rind 
rubbed  smooth.  A  dressing  of  linseed  oil  either  with  or 
without  bone  black  is  applied. 

The    cheeses   are    kept    in    special    ripening    rooms, 


292  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

and  rubbed  frequently  with  linseed  oil  to  keep  the  surfaces 
free  from  molds  and  vermin.  Careful  grading  as  to  qual- 
ity of  product  and  consequent  response  to  ripening  con- 
ditions produce  cheeses  of  many  degrees  of  excellence. 
Those  in  which  a  ripening  of  three  to  four  years  is  possible 
are  most  highly  esteemed. 

277.  Regianito.  —  A  cheese  of  the  Italian  group  is 
now  made  in  Argentina  and  imported  to  the  United  States 
under  the  name  Regianito. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MISCELLANEOUS   VARIETIES  AND   BY- 
PRODUCTS 

As  already  discussed  in  Chapter  VI,  there  are  a  large 
number  of  varieties  of  cheese.  Very  many  are  entirely 
unknown  in  America.  A  considerable  number  of  forms 
are  occasionally  imported  and  may  be  found  by  visiting 
the  markets  and  delicatessen  stores  in  the  foreign  dis- 
tricts of  our  large  cities.  Certain  forms  not  widely  known 
are  made  in  America  in  a  few  factories  or  are  imported 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  call  for  brief  discussion.  Some 
of  these  are  brought  together  here. 

The  importance  of  the  by-products  of  cheese-making 
has  not  been  sufficiently  recognized,  for  manufacture  on 
a  large  scale  is  only  beginning  to  be  appreciated  in  America. 
Certain  cheese  names,  such  as  Mysost,  are  applied  to  whey 
products.  In  addition,  milk-sugar  is  extensively  made 
and  whey-butter  has  been  carefully  studied  and  found 
to  be  practicable  under  some  conditions. 

278.  Caciocavallo  originated  in  Italy,  but  is  now  made 
in  certain  factories  of  New  York  and  Ohio.  Some  factories 
in  Lombardy1  use  whole  milk,  others  use  half-skimmed 
milk.  The  latter  practice  is  probably  the  more  common. 
In  making  this  cheese,  the  milk  is  coagulated  with  rennet, 
cut  and  firmed  in  the  whey,  allowed  to  settle  and  the  whey 

1  Cornalba,  G.,  Caciocavallo  in  Lombardy,  L'Industria  del 
Latte  3,  page  105,  Abs.  in  Jahresb.  f.  Tierchemie  36  (1906), 
page  250. 

293 


294  THE    'BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

drawn.  The  curd  is  then  piled  on  the  draining  table 
and  allowed  to  mat  or  fuse  into  fairly  solid  masses.  After 
several  hours  of  draining  and  matting,  the  curd  is  cut 
into  strips  and  placed  in  a  vat  of  hot  water.  In  the  hot 
water,  the  blocks  of  solid  curd  melt  into  taffy-like  masses 
which  are  worked  and  molded  by  hand  into  more  or  less 
standard  shapes.  Indian  club  or  ten-pin  forms  are 
most  commonly  produced.  When  the  proper  shape  has 
been  gained,  each  mass  is  thrown  into  cold  water  which 
solidifies  it  in  that  form.  Cheese  masses  heat  and  cool 
slowly;  several  hours  of  cooling  are  required  to  insure 
a  firm  cheese.  The  newly  made  cheeses  are  salted  in  a 
brine  bath,  then  hung  by  a  string  to  ripen.  Sometimes 
these  cheeses  are  eaten  fresh,  again  they  are  ripened  several 
months.  They  vary  in  size  from  one  to  six  pounds. 
Cornalba  gives  the  composition  of  Italian  caciocavallo 
made  from  whole  milk  as  water  32  to  34  per  cent,  fat  34 
to  36  per  cent,  protein  28.5  to  29.5  per  cent,  salt  1.7  to 
1.8  per  cent;  when  made  from  half  skimmed-milk,  water 
28  per  cent,  fat  27  to  28  per  cent,  protein  35  to  40  per  cent, 
salt  2.2  per  cent.  Other  analyses  vary  widely  from  these 
figures  on  account  of  the  differing  fat-content  of  the  milk. 
No  standardized  practice  has  been  established  in  America. 

Provolono  resembles  Caciocavallo  in  method  of  manu- 
facture and  composition,  the  main  difference  being  in 
the  shape  of  the  cheese.  It  is  more  or  less  round  and 
is  held  by  a  coarse  net  made  of  small  rope.  The  cheeses 
are  treated  while  curing  the  same  as  Caciocavallo. 

279.  Sap  sago.  —  This  hard  green  cheese  imported 
from  Switzerland  is  made  in  cakes,  tapering  from  perhaps 
two  inches  in  diameter  to  a  rounded  top  with  a  height 
of  about  two  inches.  These  are  made  from  skimmed-milk 
curd,  partially  ripened  then  mixed  with  powdered  leaves 


MISCELLANEOUS   VARIETIES,   BY-PRODUCTS     295 

of  Melilotus  cceruleus,  a  clover-like  plant.  The  mixture 
is  then  pressed  into  the  market  form  and  dried  until  very 
hard.  It  is  handled  without  special  care  since  the  water- 
content  is  so  low  that  fermentations  are  exceedingly 
slow.  This  low-priced  cheese  may  be  used  in  cooking. 

280.  Albumin  cheese.1  —  In  the  rennet    cheeses,  the 
albumin,  which  constitutes    about  0.7  per  cent  of  the 
milk,  passes  off  in  the  whey.     This  albumin  is  not  curdled 
by  rennet.     It  is,  however,  coagulated  by  heating.     The 
presence  of  acid  hastens  such  coagulation  but  does  not 
cause  it  when  used  alone.     When  the  whey  is  heated  to 
about  200°  F.,  the  albumin  rises  and  may  be  skimmed  off. 
In  this  form  it  is  recovered  and  used.     It  may  be  shaped 
is  hoops   under  pressure,  as  Ricotte,  an  Italian   form. 
This  cheese  is  pressed  firmly  and  dried.     Such  albumin 
is  frequently  prepared  as  a  poultry  feed. 

281.  Mysost,   Norwegian  whey  cheese.  —  The  whey 
contains  nearly  5  per  cent  of  milk-sugar  which  can  be 
recovered    by    boiling.     The    Norwegian    process    which 
produces  Mysost  consists  in  raising  the  whey  to  the  boil- 
ing point,  skimming  off  the  albumin  as  it  rises,  then  con- 
centrating the  remainder  of  the  whey.     As  it  reaches 
sufficient  concentration,  the  albumin  is  thoroughly  stirred 
back  into  the  mass  and  the  mass  finally  cooled  into  forms. 
Mysost  is  a  brown,  hard  brittle  mass  consisting  principally 
of  caramelized  milk-sugar.   Analysis  shows  such  percentage 
composition  as  follows :  water  10  to  20  per  cent,  protein 
10  to  15  per  cent,  milk-sugar  30  to  55  per  cent.     Mysost 
is  found  in  the  larger  markets  of  the  United  States. 

Primost  is  an  albumin    cheese   somewhat    similar  to 
Ricotte  and  Mysost.     It  is  made  by  precipitating  the 

1  Babcock,  S.  M.,  Albumin  cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.  .12 
(1895),  page  134. 


296  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

albumin  by  acid  and  heat.  The  main  difference  is  in 
the  firmness  of  the  cheese.  This  is  regulated  by  drying. 

282.  Whey  butter.1  —  The  loss  of  a  percentage  of  fat, 
rarely  less  than  0.3  per  cent  and  in  some  cheeses  very 
much  greater,  has  led  to  the  making  of  whey  butter. 
For  this  purpose  a  separator  is  introduced  and  all  whey 
is  separated  daily.  The  fat  recovered  in  the  form  of 
cream  is  then  ripened  and  churned.  Whey  butter  is  not 
rated  as  equal  to  butter  made  from  whole  milk  but  a  fair 
market  can  usually  be  found  for  the  product.  The  recov- 
ery of  0.25  per  cent  fat  means  two  and  one-half  pounds 
of  fat  to  1000  pounds  of  whey.  This  will  make  about 
three  pounds  of  butter. 

Whether  whey  butter  shall  be  made  depends  on  the 
volume  of  business,  the  extra  equipment  required,  the 
extra  help  necessary  and  the  market  for  the  product. 
As  a  rule,  whey  butter  is  economically  recoverable 
only  in  large  factories.  It  is  not  considered  advisable 
to  attempt  to  make  it  unless  one  has  the  whey  from 
10,000  pounds  of  milk.  In  some  instances,  the  com- 
bination of  small  cheese  factories  with  one  churning 
plant  has  proved  to  be  economical.  The  objection  to 
the  making  of  whey  butter  is,  that  it  stimulates  careless- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  cheese-maker  because  he  thinks  that 
the  fat  will  be  recovered  by  skimming.  He  does  not  realize 
that  the  other  milk  solids  are  being  reduced  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  fat,  to  the  great  loss  in  yield  of  cheese. 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  Whey  butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind. 
Circ.  161,  pages  1-7,  1910. 

Sammis,  J.  L.,  Making  whey  butter  at  Cheddar  cheese  fac- 
tories, Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246,  1915. 

Ellenberrger,  H.  B.,  and  M.  R.  Tolstrup,  Skimming  whey  at 
Vermont  cheese  factories,  Vt.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  26,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CHEESE   FACTORY   CONSTRUCTION, 
EQUIPMENT,    ORGANIZATION 

THE  principal  factor  in  determining  the  location  of  a 
cheese  factory  is  the  available  supply  of  milk.  This 
is  usually  ascertained  by  making  a  canvass,  and  finding 
out  the  number  of  cows  whose  milk  would  be  brought 
to  the  factory.  The  quantity  of  milk  or  the  number 
of  cows  necessary  to  insure  sufficient  milk  for  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  factory,  depends  on  the  variety 
of  cheese  to  be  made.  When  making  types  of  cheese 
for  which  very  sweet  milk  is  necessary,  the  milk  must 
be  delivered  twice  a  day.  This  demand  limits  the  area 
from  which  the  factory  can  secure  its  supply.  The 
length  of  time  the  cheeses  are  held  in  the  curing-room  and 
the  work  necessary  to  care  for  them  also  limits  the  area 
which  the  factory  can  serve,  because  a  very  large  amount 
of  milk  cannot  be  handled  when  the  cheese  must  be  given 
considerable  attention  in  the  curing-rooms.  Swiss,  Lim- 
burger  and  Brick  cheese  factories  usually  do  not  require  a 
large  supply  of  milk ;  therefore  the  factories  may  be  built 
close  together.  The  size  of  the  Cheddar  cheese  factories 
varies  but  it  is  generally  considered  unprofitable  to  make 
Cheddar  cheese  unless  there  are  5000  pounds  of  milk 
available  daily.  Conditions  have  changed  so  that  at 
present  different  kinds  of  cheese  are  made  from  the 

297 


298  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

surplus  milk  in  market  milk  plants.  In  such  cases  a  uni- 
form supply  is  not  absolutely  necessary.  The  climate 
must  also  be  suitable  for  the  industry. 

283.  Locating  the  site.  —  In  a  farming  community, 
several  factory  sites  are  usually  available.  It  is  best 
to  consider  carefully  the  desirable  features  of  each  before 
trying  to  make  a  definite  choice.  Many  of  the  present 
cheese  factories  were  located  in  hollows  because  it  was 
easy  to  secure  a  supply  of  water,  but  no  thought  or 
attention  was  given  to  the  disposal  of  the  sewage.  The 
following  points  should  be  considered  in  choosing  a  site : 

(1)  Drainage.  —  A  factory  should  be  so  located  that  it 
has  good  drainage.     Ground  that  slopes  away  from  the 
factory    makes    the    disposal    of    sewage    easy.     Sewage 
should  not  be  allowed  to  run  out  on  the  ground  and  left 
to  decay,  thus  forming  a  breeding  place  for  flies,  but 
should  run  into  a  cesspool  or  septic  tank.1    Even  in  a 
porous  soil,  a  cesspool  frequently  clogs  and  gives  trouble. 
The  septic  tank  seems  to  be  the  best  method  to  dispose 
of  the  sewage  unless  the  factory  is  so  located  that  con- 
nection can  be  made  with  a  city  sewage  system. 

(2)  Water.  —  An  abundant   supply  of  pure  water  is 
essential  to  a  factory.     This  may  come  either  from  deep 
wells  or  springs.     The  value  of  a  never-failing  water  supply 
cannot  be  overestimated. 

(3)  Exposure.  —  The  factory  should  be  so  located  that 
the  receiving  room  is  away  from  the  prevailing  winds. 
This  prevents  dust  being  blown  into  the  factory.     The 
curing-room  should  be  on  the  side  not  exposed  to  the  sun 
as  this  will  keep  it  cool.     Fig.  59  shows  a  clean  cheese 
factory  of  the  ordinary  type.     When  it  is  desirable  to  cure 

1  Farrington,  E.  H.,  and  G.  J.  Davis,  The  disposal  of  creamery 
sewage,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  245,  1915. 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.   299 

the  cheese  in  a  cellar,  it  is  better  to  locate  the  factory  on 
the  side  of  a  hill.  Then  the  receiving  and  manufacturing 
room  may  be  on  the  ground  level  and  the  curing-room, 
a  cellar,  back  of  the  manufacturing  room  and  yet  all  on 
the  same  level.  This  saves  carrying  the  cheese  up  and 
down  stairs. 

(4)  Accessibility  to  market  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Often  the  quality  of  the  cheese  is  injured  by  long  hauls. 


FIG.  59.  —  A  cheese  factory  of  neat  appearance. 

An  important  item  in  marketing  both  milk  and  cheese  is 
the  use  of  the  automobile.  By  its  use  the  products  are 
not  so  long  in  transit,  and  losses  from  exposure  in  delivery 
are  reduced.  Both  milk  and  cheese,  when  exposed  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun  for  any  length  of  time,  become  warm. 
This  gives  undesirable  organisms  chance  to  develop. 

284.  The  building.  —  Details  of  construction  or  esti- 
mates of  cost  will  be  omitted  in  the  present  discussion. 
A  local  contractor  can  do  this  satisfactorily  and  also  the 


300  .       THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

cost  of  materials  is  constantly  changing.  Only  general 
considerations  as  they  apply  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
product  will  be  taken  up. 

The  building  may  be  constructed  of  wood,  stone,  various 
bricks  or  concrete.  The  kind  of  material  will  depend  on 
the  relative  cost  of  materials  in  the  local  market  and 
on  the  amount  of  money  available  for  building. 

285.  Heating   plant.  —  Many   of   the    older   factories 
have  no  heating  plants  and  some  are  so  poorly  constructed 
that  they  cannot  be  warmed.     Means  of  heating  should 
be  provided,  either  by  steam  or  a  stove.     The  loss  due 
to  freezing  is  an  item  which  is  entirely  avoided  in  factories 
properly  heated. 

286.  Curing-rooms.  —  The   size   of   the    curing-rooms 
will  depend  on  the  amount  of  cheese  to  be  handled  and 
its  location  on  the  variety  of  cheese  to  be  manufactured. 
In  every  case,  some  provision  should  be  made  to  control 
humidity  and  temperature.     If  the  room  becomes  hot 
and  dry,  evaporation  from  the  cheese  will  be  much  more 
rapid.     In  a  hot  curing-room,  undesirable  types  of  fer- 
ments are  more  likely  to  develop  and  to  injure  the  quality 
of  the  cheese. 

287.  Light.  —  The    importance    of    light    should    be 
emphasized.    ,It  acts  as  a  stimulant  to  keep  things  clean. 
It  also  makes  the  factory  more  cheerful.     There  should 
be  numerous  windows  to  give  plenty  of  light.     A  skylight 
may  often  serve  both  as  a  source  of  light  and  ventilation. 

288.  Ventilation.  —  Plenty    of   ventilation    should   be 
provided.     This  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  the 
windows  or  skylight.     However,  it  is  a  good  precaution 
to  have  at  least  one  ventilator  to  carry  off  the  steam  and 
control  the  circulation  of   air.'     All  openings  should  be 
carefully  screened  to  keep  out  flies. 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.      301 

289.  Boiler-room.  —  The  boiler-room  should  be  easily 
accessible    from    the    manufacturing    rooms.     A    gauge 
located  in  the  latter  should  tell  the  steam  pressure.     Win- 
dows or  doors  should  be  so  located  that  the  flues  of  the 
boiler  can  be  cleaned.     The  coal  supply  should  be  handy. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  boiler-room 
clean  for  otherwise  the  dirt  will  be  tracked  all  over  the 
factory. 

290.  Whey  tanks  should  be  kept  clean.     Daily  wash- 
ing is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  offensive  odors. 
Pasteurization    of    whey    has    been    found    requisite    to 
prevent   the    spread    of    disease  if    raw  milk    is   used.1 
This   is   required   by  law  in  some   states.     It   is  some- 
times accomplished  by  heat  with  steam  coils;    in  other 
cases   by    running   live    steam  directly  into   the  whey. 
Whey  tanks  may  be  made  of  wood  or  steel.     The  acid 
of  the  whey  seems  to  eat  and  decompose  concrete. 

291.  Store-room.  —  There  should  be  a  separate  room 
or  a  place  in  the  attic  where  the  supplies  can  be  kept. 
This  saves  much  waste  and  keeps  the  factory  cleaner 
and  more  tidy. 

292.  The  floors.  —  The  floor  is  the  most .  important 
part  of  the  building.     It  should  be  of  non-absorbent  ma- 
terial, which  can  be  easily  cleaned,  and  it  should  not  leak. 
Concrete  makes  the  best  floor  of  any  material  used  at 
present.      It   should   slope   very    gently    to    the    drain. 
The  corners  between  the  floor  and  side  walls  should  be 
rounding  to  make  cleaning  easy.      The  drain  should  be 
provided  with  bell   traps  to   prevent    the    entrance    of 
sewer  gas  into  the  factory.      If  the  traps  and  floor  about 
them    are  slightly   depressed,  it  will  help  to  make  the 

1  Dotterrer,  W.  D.,  and  R.  S.  Breed,  Why  and  how  pasteurize 
dairy  by-products,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  412,  1915. 


302 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


floor  drain  more  quickly.  A  catch-basin  should  be 
provided  just  outside  the  factory  for  all  solid  material 
which  might  clog  the  sewer  pipe.  This  should  be 
cleaned  three  or  four  times  a  year. 

293.  Arrangement   of  machinery   and   rooms.  —  The 
rooms  and  machinery  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  work 


FIG.  60.  —  A  well  arranged  Cheddar  cheese  factory,  including  the 
equipment  for  the  manufacture  of  whey  butter. 

will  follow  the  natural  sequence  of  the  process  with  as 
little  inconvenience  as  possible.  Some  of  the  points  to 
be  observed  in  this  connection  are :  vats  should  be  near 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.       303 

the  weigh-can ;  boiler-room  near  the  work  room ;  cheese 
presses  near  the  vats;  cheese  presses  near  the  curing- 
rooms  and  the  like. 

Fig.  60  shows  a  well  arranged  Cheddar  cheese  factory. 
The  necessary  machinery  and  rooms  for  the  manufacture 
of  whey  butter  are  included.  In  this  plan,  the  attic 
contains  the  store-room  and  the  whey  tanks.  The  whey 
is  forced  from  the  vats  into  the  tanks  with  a  steam  jet 
and  then  runs  by  gravity  to  the  separator.  Slides  are 
provided  in  the  walls  of  the  ice  storage  to  regulate  the 
flow  of  air  into  the  curing-room  and  butter  refrigerator. 
In  order  to  have  a  smaller  boiler,  a  gasolene  engine  is  used 
to  run  the  separator,  churn  and  curd-mill.  The  plan  can 
be  modified  to  use  the  upstairs  for  a  curing-room  so  that 
the  size  of  the  factory  may  be  reduced.  The  whey  butter 
could  be  shifted  to  a  small  room  where  the  curing-room  now 
is  and  the  boiler-room  added  as  a  "  lean-to  "  at  one  side 
of  the  building.  This  would  materially  reduce  the  size 
of  the  main  building. 

Another  plan  (Fig.  61)  shows  the  arrangement  of  a 
Cheddar  cheese  factory  without  the  whey  butter  appara- 
tus. The  location  of  the  drain  between  the  vats  might 
be  criticized.  In  Fig.  62  is  shown  the  arrangement  of  a 
combined  butter  and  cheese  factory.  Fig.  63  shows  the 
possible  arrangement  of  a  Limburger  factory.  The  size 
of  this  factory  could  be  reduced  by  having  the  salting 
tables  closer  together. 

In  a  Cheddar  cheese  factory,  the  curing-room  may 
be  over  the  manufacturing  room.  This  makes  consid- 
erable work  in  carrying  the  cheese  up  and  down.  A 
small  elevator  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  same 
principle  holds  in  cheese  factories  in  which  other  varieties 
of  cheese  are  made ;  the  floors  should  be  on  one  level  so 


304 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.   305 


far  as  possible.  There  is  danger  of  the  overhead  curing- 
room  becoming  too  hot  and  causing  the  cheese  to  leak 
fat.  Shelves  or  tables  should  be  provided  on  which  to 


1,  Boiler;  2,  engine;  3,  water 
pump;  4,  work  bench;  5,  wash 
sink;  6,  press;  7,  elevator;  8, 
cheese  vats;  9,  separator;  10, 
milk  heater;  11,  milk  receiv- 
ing vat;  12,  press;  13,  shelf; 
14,  Babcock  tester;  15,  weigh- 
can;  16,  churn;  17,  starter; 
18,  cream  ripener  and  pasteur- 
izer; 19,  refrigerator;  20,  milk 
sheet  and  sample  jar;  21,  milk 
pump. 


SCAJL&  1M  F-EET 

FIG.  62.  —  Combined  Cheddar  cheese  and  butter  factory. 


put  and  keep  the  utensils.     The  utensils  should  never  be 
placed  on  the  floor. 

294.  Arrangements  for  cleanliness.  —  A  sink  for  wash- 
ing the  utensils  should  be  provided  and  boiling  water 
to  scald  them  after  washing.  After  being  scalded,  tin 
utensils  dry  quickly  without  rusting.  The  boiling  water 


306 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


pa 


zi 

5? 


may  be  obtained  by 
placing  a  steam  pipe 
in  a  barrel  of  water 
and  turning  on  the 
steam.  The  utensils 
can  then  be  washed 
clean,  dipped  in  this 
barrel  of  boiling  water 
and  put  in  their  place. 
Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  laid  on  keep- 
ing the  factory  itself, 
the  utensils  and  the 
surroundings  clean. 
This  will  prevent  the 
development  of  mold. 
Cases  are  known  in 
which  the  cheese  fac- 
tory was  allowed  to 
become  very  dirty,  so 
that  a  red  mold  devel- 
oped. This  eventually 
got  into  the  cheese  and 
caused  red  spots.1 
They  are  called  rust 
spots.  All  doors  and 
windows  should  be 
screened  to  keep  out 
flies. 

295.  Equipment  and 
supplies      list.  —  The 


1  Harding,  H.  A.,  and  G.  A.  Smith,  Control  of  rust  spots  in 
cheese,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  225,  1902. 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.   307 

following  utensils  will  be  needed  in  a  Cheddar  cheese  fac- 
tory to  handle  10,000  pounds  of  milk  daily :  1  5-H.  P. 
boiler;  160-gallonweigh-can;  1  conductor  head  and  trough; 
1  platform  scale ;  1  Babcock  tester,  glassware  and  sample 
bottles ;  2  700-gallon  cheese  vats ;  2  gang  cheese  presses ; 
1  curd-mill;  2  curd-knives;  30  cheese  hoops;  1  whey 
strainer ;  1  curd  scoop ;  1  long-handled  dipper ;  1  strainer 
dipper;  1  siphon;  1  cheese  knife;  1  glass  graduate; 
1  cheese-trier ;  1  speed  knife ;  1  paraffine  tank ;  1  Marschall 
rennet  test;  1  lactometer;  1  milk  can  hoist;  1  acid 
test ;  1  sink ;  1  40-quart  milk  can ;  3  pails ;  3  shot-gun 
cans  for  starter;  3  thermometers;  brushes  and  brooms; 
1  Wisconsin  curd  test  or  fruit  jars  for  same ;  1  set  counter 
scales ;  2  curd  rakes. 

If  whey  butter  is  made,  the  equipment  should  include : 
Tanks  to  hold  the  whey ;  separator ;  cream  ripening  vat ; 
churn;  butter-worker;  butter  refrigerator;  large  boiler 
and  steam  engine  or  gasolene  engine. 

The  following  supplies  will  be  needed  for  the  making 
of  the  cheese :  Bandages ;  boxes ;  scale  boards ;  starched 
circles ;  rennet  extract  or  pepsin ;  cheese  color ;  press  cloths  ; 
paraffine ;  formalde- 
hyde ;  alkali ;  indi- 
cator ;  sulfuric  acid. 

When  choosing  the 
utensils,  the  ease  of 
cleaning  and  sanitary  FlG'  w.-A  sanite^dipper  with  a  solid 

construction       should 

not  be  overlooked.  One  of  the  most  unsanitary  utensils 
in  a  factory  is  a  dipper  with  a  hollow  handle.  Fig.  64 
shows  a  dipper  with  a  solid  handle  which  any  tinsmith 
can  make.  The  seams  of  all  utensils  should  be  flushed 
full  of  solder,  to  make  cleaning  easy.  When  ready  to 


308  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

clean  or  wash  any  utensils  which  have  come  in  contact 
with  milk  or  its  products,  the  steps  are  as  follows :  rinse 
in  cold  water,  wash  in  warm  water  in  which  some  wash- 
ing-soda has  been  dissolved,  rinse  clean,  scald  in  boiling 
water.  Never  use  a  cloth  to  wash  utensils ;  a  brush  is 
more  sanitary. 

296.  Factory  organization.  —  There  are  two  general 
classes  of  organizations1  to  operate  cheese  factories,  one 
the  proprietary  and  the  other  the  cooperative.  Un- 
less the  kind  of  organization  is  what  the  dairy-men  desire, 
dissatisfaction  is  sure  to  result. 

(1)  Proprietary    organization.  —  Under    this    form    of 
organization,   one    person   owns   and    operates   the   fac- 
tory.    The  dairy-men  are  paid  a  stated  price  for  milk, 
or  the  milk  is  made  into  cheese  for  a  stated   price  a 
pound.     The  proprietor  receives  all  profits  and  assumes 
all  losses. 

So  far  as  the  dairy-man  is  concerned,  the  stock  com- 
pany is  a  proprietary  organization.  The  gains  and 
losses  are  shared  by  each  member  according  to  the 
amount  of  money  invested. 

(2)  Cooperative  organization.  —  In   a   true    cooperative 
cheese  factory  each  patron  is  an  owner,  as   the   name 
indicates.     The  object  of  this  organization  is  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  manufacture  rather  than  pay  large  dividends, 
so  that  the  dairy-man  with  a  large  herd  and  small  capital 
invested  in   the  factory  obtains  more   returns  than  the 
one  who  owns  considerable  capital  and  has  a  small  herd. 
Many  cheese  factories  are  cooperative  in  name  only  and 

1  Elliott,  W.  J.,  Creameries  and  cheese  factories,  Mont.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  53,  1904. 

Farrington,  E.  H.,  and  E.  H.  Benkendorf,  Origination  and 
construction  of  cheese  factories  and  creameries,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  244,  1915. 


CHEESE  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION,  ETC.   309 

proprietary  in  operation.  The  state  of  Wisconsin  has 
a  law  which  tends  to  stop  this  defect  and  defines  what 
organizations  may  use  the  term  or  name,  cooperative. 

The  constitution  of  a  cooperative  organization  should 
state:  1,  Name;  2,  object;  3,  officers  and  duties  of 
officers;  4,  manager  or  other  person  to  run  business; 
5,  capital  stock;  6,  meetings;  7,  voting  power;  8, 
amendments. 

Some  of  the  most  important  statements  which  should 
appear  in  the  constitution  are  mentioned  in  the  following 
sentences.  A  statement  should  show  what  persons  are 
eligible  to  membership  in  the  organization.  It  is  a 
careless  plan  simply  to  say  that  the  duties  of  the  officers 
are  those  usually  defined  in  such  an  organization.  This 
may  lead  to  confusion  and  neglect,  or  both.  Direct 
statements  should  be  made 'explaining  the  exact  duties 
of  each  officer.  The  limits  of  the  authority  of  the  manager 
or  person  who  runs  the  business  should  be  explicitly 
stated.  The  manager  then  knows  just  what  his  duties 
are  and  what  matters  or  parts  of  the  business  must  be 
considered  by  other  officers  or  committees.  The  amount 
of  capital  stock  and  the  number  and  value  of  each  share 
should  be  exactly  stated.  The  constitution  should  state 
when  arid  where  the  regular  meetings  must  be  held  and 
by  whom  and  when  special  meetings  may  be  called. 
This  gives  every  member  ample  notice  of  the  regular 
meetings.  Some  method  or  means  should  be  provided  to 
notify  each  member  of  the  special  meetings. 

The  voting  power  should  be  definitely  stated,  whether 
it  is  limited  to  shares  of  capital  stock  or  by  members  or 
by  number  of  cows  owned  by  each  member.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  indicate  just  how  amendments  to  the  constitution 
may  be  made.  Each  member  should  know  before  the 


310  THE   BOOK   OF    CHEESE 

final  vote  just  what  changes  are  being  proposed.     Types 
of  constitutions  may  be  found  in  the  following  references : 

ELLIOTT,  W.  J.,  Creameries  and  cheese  factories;   organization, 

building  and  equipment,  Mont.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  53,  1904. 
FARRINGTON,  E.  H.,  and  G.  H.  BENKENDORF,  Organization  and 

construction  of  creameries  and  cheese  factories,  Wis.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bui.  244,  1915. 
VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  and  C.  A.  PUBLOW,  The  science  and  practice 

of  cheese  making,  pages  447-453,  1909. 
Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.   139,   1913.     Creamery  organization  and 

construction. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF    THE 
CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA 

JUST  when  the  first  cheese  was  made  is  not  known. 
By  the  time  the  first  immigrants  came  to  America, 
cheese-making  was  rather  generally  known  in  Europe, 
so  that  the  early  settlers  brought  with  them  and  practiced 
established  methods.  The  countries  of  Europe  developed 
different  kinds  of  cheese  and  have  since  become  noted  for 
such  particular  varieties,  for  example :  France,  Camem- 
bert  and  Roquefort ;  Switzerland,  .Swiss  cheese ;  England, 
Stilton  and  Cheddar;  Germany,  Limburger;  Holland, 
Edam  and  Gouda;  Italy,  Parmesan  and  its  allies, 
also  Gorgonzola  cheese.  The  manufacture  of  these 
various  cheeses  has  been  attempted  in  this  country. 
Because  of  the  difference  in  climatic  conditions  and 
in  some  cases  the  use  of  milk  of  sheep  or  goats,  it  was 
and  still  is  difficult  to  manufacture  some  of  the  European 
cheeses  in  America.  Since  the  climatic  conditions  of  this 
country  and  certain  parts  of  England  are  somewhat  similar, 
the  manufacture  of  the  cheeses  of  England  predominated, 
and  there  was  also  more  information  on  their  manufacture. 
These  are  probably  the  reasons  why  the  United  States  and 
Canada  have  become  famous  for  Cheddar  cheese. 

The  first  cheeses  of  the  Cheddar  group  were  made  on 
the  farms.  The  work  was  usually  performed  by  women, 
and  the  process  was  very  simple.  The  methods  were  crude, 

311 


312  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

and  the  cheeses  were  made  in  a  more  or  less  haphazard 
way.  The  milk  of  the  evening  was  placed  in  a  cheese 
tub  in  the  dairy  room  and  cooled  to  a  temperature  that 
would  prevent  souring.  In  most  cases  the  cream  that 
had  raised  to  the  surface  of  the  night's  milk  was  removed 
in  the  morning.  This  was  considered  an  act  of  economy, 
for  it  was  thought  that  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
it  would  all  pass  off  in  the  whey  and  be  lost.  The  morn- 
ing's milk  was  then  mixed  with  that  of  the  evening  and 
warmed  to  the  setting  temperature  by  placing  a  portion 
in  a  tin  pail  and  suspending  it  in  a  kettle  of  hot  water. 
When  hot,  it  was  emptied  into  the  tub  of  cold  milk. 
By  transferring  back  and  forth,  the  setting  temperature 
was  finally  reached.  Few  of  these  settlers  owned  ther- 
mometers. Consequently,  cheese-makers  were  obliged 
to  depend  on  the  sense  of  feeling  to  determine  temperature. 
One  of  the  serious  difficulties  of  the  early  manufac- 
ture was  the  production  of  rennet  of  a  uniform  strength. 
After  the  addition  of  the  rennet  and  as  soon  as  the  coagu- 
lated milk  became  firm  enough,  it  was  broken  into  as 
small  pieces  as  could  be  conveniently  made,  a  wooden 
knife  being  used  for  the  purpose.  After  standing  ten 
minutes  it  was  stirred  by  hand,  breaking  the  pieces  finer, 
and  the  temperature  was  gradually  brought  to  98°  F., 
aiming  as  near  blood  heat  as  could  be  judged  by  the 
sense  of  feeling.  It  was  kept  at  this  temperature  until 
the  moisture  was  out  of  the  curd  and  it  would  squeak 
between  the  teeth.  The  whey  was  drawn  off  and  the 
curd  stirred  until  dry,  salted  and  put  to  press.  All  the 
curd  of  one  day  was  made  into  a  cheese.  This  resulted 
in  small  uneven-sized  cheese.  Since  such  cheeses  were 
made  from  the  milk  of  single  dairies  with  all  the  surround- 
ings clean,  the  flavor  was  usually  good  but  the  texture 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       313 

was  open  and  soft.  The  method  of  caring  for  the  cheese 
and  marketing  was  entirely  different  from  that  practiced 
at  the  present  time.  All  the  cheeses  made  during  the 
entire  season  were  held  until  fall  and  marketed  at  one 
time.  They  were  packed  in  casks  four  to  six  in  a  package, 
one  on  top  of  the  other.  The  earliest  date  when  single 
boxed  cheeses  were  on  the  market  was  1841. 

Between  1820  and  1840,  a  small  export  trade  in  cheese 
was  started.  As  this  demand  for  cheese  increased,  partic- 
ularly in  England,  it  became  necessary  to  change  the 
methods  employed  in  manufacture.  The  farm  dairy 
cheese  was  rather  an  open-textured  sweet  curd  product. 
If  not,  it  was  due  more  to  accident  than  to  any  intention 
of  the  cheese-maker  to  improve  the  quality.  One  of  the 
early  complaints  from  England  was  that  the  cheeses  were 
too  small  and  uneven  in  size.  The  practice  of  making 
on  the  farm  continued  until  about  1851,  when  the  factory 
system  was  started,  although  home  manufactures  con- 
tinued after  that  time.  Following  are  the  reasons  for  the 
change  from  the  farm  to  factory  system :  (1)  England 
demanded  larger  cheese;  (2)  the  farm  product  was  not 
uniform ;  (3)  the  quality  of  the  farm  cheese  did  not  suit 
the  English  trade ;  (4)  factories  saved  much  labor  on  the 
farms ;  and  (5)  could  secure  higher  prices. 

297.  The  factory  system.  —  Where  and  by  whom  the 
first  Cheddar  cheese  factory  in  America  was  started  is 
not  definitely  known.  Jesse  Williams  of  Oneida  County, 
New  York,  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  the  first  to 
build  and  operate  under  the  factory  system,  in  1851. 
Cheese  factories  were  opened  in  Ohio  and  Wisconsin  about 
1860.  In  the  period  1860  to  1870,  a  large  number  of 
cheese  factories  were  built  in  the  various  states,  especially 
New  York,  Ohio  and  Wisconsin. 


314  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

298.  Introduction    of   factory    system   in    Canada. — 
In  1863,  Harvey  Farrington  of  Herkimer,  New  York, 
was  so  impressed  with  the  opportunity  of  developing  the 
cheese  factory  system  in  Canada  that  he  sold  out  his 
business  in  New  York  and  established  the  first  Canadian 
cheese  factory  in  the  town  of  Norwich,  Ontario.     It  was 
accepted  at  once  by  Canadian  farmers,  and  factory  cheese- 
making  increased  rapidly.     In  1866,  a  small  quantity  of 
cheese  was  exported  and  from  that  time  the  export  trade 
of  Canada  has  been  large  and  growing.     Ontario  and 
Quebec  are  now  the  leading  provinces  in  the  production 
of  cheese. 

299.  Introduction   of   cheddaring. — The  factories   at 
first  used  the  same  process  as  the  farms,  namely  the  stirred- 
curd  process.     In  1867,  Robert  McAdam  introduced  the 
English   Cheddar  system   in  a  factory  near  Herkimer, 
New  York.    This  is  the  Cheddar  system  as  known  to-day. 
It  produces  the  closer  bodied  cheese  demanded  by  the 
export  trade.     This  introduction  made  Herkimer  County 
famous  for  its  cheese. 

300.  Introduction  of  Swiss  and  Limburger.  —  In  1870, 
factories  for  Limburger,  Swiss  and  Brick  cheese  were 
started   and  have   gradually  increased.     In  New  York 
such    plants    are  located  around    Boonville    in    Oneida 
County,   and   Theresa,   in   Jefferson   County.     In   Wis- 
consin, Swiss  cheese-making  was  begun  by  a  colony  of 
Swiss  who  came  to  New  Glarus,  Green  County.     It  is 
now  made  in  Green,  Lafayette,  Iowa,  Grant,  Dane  and 
Rock  counties.     Limburger  and  Brick  are  manufactured 
in  Dodge,  Fond  du  Lac,  Winnebago,  Marathon,  La  Crosse, 
Buffalo,  Trempealeau,  Clark,  Washington,  Dunn,  Barron 
and  Lincoln  counties.      In  the  southeastern  part  of  Ohio 
Swiss  cheese  is  produced.      Ohio  and  Wisconsin    have 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       315 

manufactured  more  of  these  cheeses,  especially  Swiss, 
than  any  other  states.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  conditions  are  more  nearly  like  those  of  Switzer- 
land. 

When  the  cities  in  New  York  began  to  grow,  an 
increased  demand  for  market  milk  was  felt.  The  result 
was  that  the  dairy-men  could  not  supply  both  the  cities 
and  the  cheese  factories  with  milk.  A  large  part  of 
the  cheese  was  being  exported  and  most  of  it  had  al- 
ways been  partly  skimmed.  The  amount  of  skimming, 
therefore,  was  largely  increased.  Then  other  animal 
fats  were  substituted  for  the  milk-fat.  This  product 
was  known  as  "  filled "  cheese.  The  delay  in  con- 
trolling the  practice  of  making  skimmed-milk  and  filled 
cheese  ruined  the  export  trade.  In  Canada  laws 
prohibited  the  making  of  filled  cheese  and  as  a  con- 
sequence Canadian  Cheddar  cheese  is  still  very  popular 
in  England.  However,  with  the  control  of  skimmed-milk 
cheese-making  and  the  elimination  of  filled  cheese,  the 
volume  continued  to  grow  and  to  find  outlet  in  local 
consumption.  New  York  probably  exported  more 
cheese  than  any  other  state.  Wisconsin  shipped  cheese 
into  other  regions,  especially  the  southern  states  in  which 
no  cheeses  were  made.  Some  Wisconsin  cheeses  were 
shipped  to  the  New  York  market  from  time  to  time, 
but  in  October,  1913,  the  first  quotations 1  were  made 
in  New  York  City  for  Wisconsin  products. 

301.  Number  and  distribution  of  cheese  factories.  - 
The  following  list  and  maps  (Figs.  65,  66)  compiled  in  1914 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Dairy 
Division,  show  the  number  of  cheese  factories  in  the  dif- 
ferent states  and  their  location : 

1  From  N.  Y.  price  current. 


316 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       317 

Arizona 3  New  Hampshire  ...  2 

California      .....  93  New  York 995 

Colorado 8  North  Dakota.     ....      3 

Connecticut 2  Ohio Ill 

Delaware 1  Oklahoma 1 

Illinois 50  Oregon 42 

Indiana 13  Pennsylvania        .     .     .  106 

Iowa 25  South  Dakota      ...  1 

Kansas 1  Utah 8 

Maine  .......  5  Vermont 35 

Michigan 196  Virginia 3 

Minnesota 74  Washington     ....  15 

Missouri   ......  4  West  Virginia       ...  1 

Montana 1  Wisconsin 1720 

Nebraska 1  3520 

302.  Total  production  of  cheese  in  the  United  States. 

—  The  following  figures  (Table  XX)  compiled  by  the 
United  States  Census  show  the  total  production  of  cheese 
and  the  amount  made  on,  farms  and  in  factories  in  the 
United  States  by  ten-year  periods : 


TABLE  XX 

SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  PRODUCTION  OF  CHEESE  AND  PART 
MADE  ON  FARMS  AND  IN  FACTORIES  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  BY  TEN-YEAR  PERIODS 

1849  Total  105,535,893  pounds 

1859  Total  103,663,927  pounds 

1869  Total  162,927,382  pounds 

1879  Total  243,157,850  pounds 

1889  On  farms        18,726,818  pounds 

In  factories  238,035,065  pounds 

Total  256,761,883  pounds 

1899  On  farms        16,372,330  pounds 

In  factories  281,972,324  pounds 

Total  298,344,654  pounds 

1909  On  farms          9,405,864  pounds 

In  factories  311,126,317  pounds 

Total  320,532,181  pounds 


318 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


Comparing  the  figures  of  1899  with  those  of  1909,  it  is 
seen  that  the  total  production  of  cheese  in  the  United 

States  increased  22,187,539 
pounds,  or  an  increase  of  7.4 
per  cent  in  1909  over  1899. 
During  the  same  years  the 
amount  made  on  the  farms 
decreased  6,966,454  pounds, 
or  a  decrease  of  42.6  per 
cent,  while  the  amount 
made  in  factories  increased 
29,153,933  pounds  or  10.3 
per  cent. 

303.  Rank  of  the  leading 
cheese-producing  states.  — 
The  rank  of  the  leading 
cheese  states  according  to 
the  number  of  factories  in 
1914  was :  Wisconsin  1720, 
New  York  995,  Michigan 
196,  Ohio  111,  Pennsylvania 
106. 

The  table  on  the  opposite 
page  (Table  XXI)  shows 
the  amount  of  cheese  pro- 
duced by  the  five  states 
with  the  largest  number  of 
factories.  This  table  indi- 
cates that  New  York  led  in 
the  production  of  cheese 
until  some  time  between  1899  and  1909.  This  is  proba- 
bly because,  New  York  having  so  many  cities,  the  demand 
for  market  milk  is  so  large  that  it  is  sold  as  such  instead 


FIG.  66.  —  Showing  the  cheese  fac- 
tories in  the  Pacific  coast  states. 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       319 


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320 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


of  being  manufactured  into  cheese.  There  is  about  the 
same  number  of  milch  cows  in  New  York  and  Wisconsin. 
However,  Wisconsin  is  credited  with  more  cheese  in  1909 
than  New  York  ever  produced  and  this  output  probably 
will  increase,  as  there  are  considerable  areas  of  undeveloped 
agricultural  land  in  Wisconsin.  It  is  also  interesting  to 
note  that  Ohio  is  falling  off  in  cheese  production.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  increased  demand  for  market  milk.  On 
the  other  hand,  production  has  increased  in  Pennsylvania. 
304.  Exportation  and  importation  of  cheese  by  the 
United  States.  —  The  accompanying  table  shows  the  ex- 


Millions 


Pounds 


300 


200 


150 


100 


50 


<y 


v^? 


/-A 


1900 


1910 


1850          1860         1870 

FIG.  67.  —  Showing  relationship  of  total  production,  exports  and 
imports  of  cheese. 

ports  and  imports  of  cheese  from  1851  to  1916  and  their 
values,  in  so  far  as  the  figures  are  available. 

One  noteworthy  item  in  Table  XXII  is  that  the  exports 
have  gradually  decreased .  and  imports  increased.     This 


THE   CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       321 


TABLE   XXII 

SHOWING  THE  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  CHEESE  BY  THE 
UNITED  STATES  FROM  1851-1916 


YEAR 

IMPORTS 

EXPORTS 

1851 
1852 
1853 

1854 
1855 
1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 

Amount  in 
pounds 

603,398 
514,337 
874,949 
969,417 
1,526,942 
,384,272 
,400,252 
,589,066 
,409,420 
,401,161 
,090,835 
594,822 
545.966 
836,127 
.  985,362 

Value  in  dollars 

Amount  in 
pounds 

10,361,189 
6,650,420 
3,763,932 
7,003,974 
4,846,568 
8,737,029 
6,453,072 
8,098,527 
7,103,323 
15,515,799 
32,361,428 
34,052,678 
42,045,054 
47,751,329 
53,154,318 
36,411,985 
52,352,127 
51,097,203 
39,960,367 
57,296,327 
63,698,867 
66,204,025 
80,366,540 
90,611,077 
101,010,853 
97,676,364 
107,364,666 
123,783,736 
141,654,474 
127,553,907 
147,995,614 
127,989,782 
99,220,467 
112,869,575 
111,992,990 

Value  in  dollars 

1,738,657 
2,997,994 

6,243,014 
6,247,560 

322 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


TABLE   XXII  Continued 


YEAB 

IMPOBTS 

EXPORTS 

1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 

Amount  in 
pounds 

6,309,124 
6,592,192 
8,750,185 
8,207,026 
9,263,573 
8,863,640 
8,305,288 
10,195,924 
8,742,851 
10,276,293 
10,728,397 
12,319,122 
10,012,188 
11,826,175 
13,455,990 
15,329,099 
17,067,714 
20,671,384 
22,707,103 
23,095,705 
27,286,866 
33,848,766 
32,530,830 
35,548,143 
40,817,524 
45,568,797 
46,542,007 
49,387,944 
63,784,313 
50,138,520 
30,087,999 

Value  in  dollars 

Amount  in 
pounds 

91,877,235 
81,255,994 
88,008,458 
84,999,828 
95,376,053 
82,133,876 
82,100,221 
81,350,923 
73,852,134 
60,448,421 
36,777,291 
50,944,617 
53,167,280 
38,198,753 
48,419,353 
39,813,517 
27,203,184 
18,987,178 
23,335,172 
10,134,424 
16,562,451 
17,285,230 
8,439,031 
6,822,842 
2,846,709 
10,366,605 
6,337,559 
2,599,058 
2,427,577 
55,362,917 
44,394,301 

Value  in  dollars 

, 

$2,551,366 
3,183,224 
3,284,811 
3,379,600 
4,303,830 
5,704,012 
5,586,706 
5,866,154 
7,053,570 
7,920,244 
8,807,249 
9,185,184 
11,010,693 
9,370,048 
7,058,420 

$2,745,597 
2,250,229 
2,452,239 
1,084,044 
1,940,620 
2,012,626 
1,092,053 
857,091 
441,017 
1,288,279 
898,035 
441,186 
414,124 
8,463,174 
7,430,089 

is  probably  because  immigrants  have  demanded  the  cheeses 
of  their  native  country  which  were  not  made  in  America. 
The  exports  for  the  years  1915  and  1916  are  interesting 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       323 

as  they  show  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  cheese  industry, 
the  imports  being  gradually  decreased  and  the  exports 
greatly  increased.  • 

The  graph  (Fig.  67)  represents  the  total  production 
and  the  exports  and  imports  of  cheese  into  the  United 
States. 

305.  Average  yearly  price  of  cheese.  —  The  following 
table  shows  the  average  yearly  price  of  Cheddar  cheese 
in  the  United  States : 

TABLE   XXIII 

SHOWING  THE  AVERAGE  YEARLY  PRICE  OF  CHEESE,  1892-1916 

YEAR  CENTS 

1892  9.4 

1893  9.4 

1894  9.7 

1895  9.1 

1896  8.4 

1897  9.1 

1898  8.6 

1899  8.6 

1900  10.2 

1901  9.9 

1902  10.1 

1903  11.9 

1904  10.5 

1905  10.7 

1906  11.7 

1907  11.6 

1908  12.9 

1909  12.6 

1910  15.5 

1911  12.4 

1912  14.2 

1913  17.0 

1914  17.1 

1915  15.3 

1916  16.7 


324 


THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


The  graph  (Fig.  68)  shows  that  the  average  yearly 
price  has  increased  from  9.4  cents  a  pound  to  16.7  cents. 


2     34    567    8    9    10  11  12  13   14  15   16  \7   Cents 


1892 
1895 

1900 
1905 
1910 

1915 
years 


FIG.  68.  —  Average  yearly  price  of  cheese. 

306.  Canadian  cheese  statistics.  —  The  following  statis- 
tics show  the  development  of  the  industry  in  Canada. 
The  figures  in  Table  XXIV  show  the  number  of  cheese 
factories,  the  amount  of  milk  received  and  the  total 
production  in  Canada. 

Table  XXIV  indicates  that  the  number  of  cheese  fac- 
tories has  decreased  but  that  the  production  has  increased. 
Because  of  the  scarcity  of  figures,  conclusions  would  not 
be  accurate. 

The  figures  in  Table  XXV  of  the  exports  and  imports 
show  that  the  exports  gradually  decreased  and  the  imports 
increased.  If  the  production  has  increased,  as  shown  in 
Table  XXIV,  more  cheese  must  be  consumed  by  the 


THE  CHEESE  INDUSTRY  IN  AMERICA       325 


Canadians.  The  effect  of  the  war  is  probably  seen  in 
the  year  1916,  when  the  imports  are  decreased  and  the 
exports  increased. 

TABLE   XXIV 

SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  CHEESE  FACTORIES,  AMOUNT  OF 
MILK  RECEIVED  AND  THE  FACTORY  PRODUCTION  OF 
CHEESE 


YEAR 

NUMBER  OF 
CHEESE  FACTO- 
RIES 

POUNDS  OF  MILK 
DELIVERED 

FACTORY  PRODUCTION 
OF  CHEESE 

1900 

1907 
1910 
1915 
1916 

220,833,269 

204,788,583 
199,904,205 
183,887,837 
192,968,597 

2291 
1871 
1813 

1,501,946,221 
1,503,997,215 

TABLE   XXV 

SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  AND  VALUE  OF  CANADIAN  EXPORTS  AND 
IMPORTS  OF  CHEESE 


YEAR 

EXPORTS 

IMPORTS 

1880 

1890 
1900 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 

Amount  in  pounds 

40,368,000 
94,260,000 
185,984,000 
180,859,000 
181,895,000 
163,450,000 
155,216,000 
144,478,000 
137,601,000 
168,961,000 

Value  in  dollars 

$3,893,000 
9,372,212 
19,856,324 
21,607,692 
20,739,507 
20,888,818 
20,697,000 
18,866,000 
19,213,000 

Amount  in 
p'ounds 

683,778 
866,653 
919,189 
1,495,758 
1,512,108 
1,162,456 
971,821 

Value  in 
dollars 

326  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

If  the  total  population  of  the  United  States  is  figured 
at  100  million  and  the  difference  between  the  exports 
and  imports  found  and  added  to  the  total  production,  it 
shows  that  the  average  person  must  consume  about  three 
and  one-half  pounds  of  cheese  in  a  year. 

In  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  considerable  de- 
mand for  more  of  the  foreign  cheeses,  such  as  Camembert 
and  Roquefort. 

307.  Introduction  of  cheese-making  into  new  regions. 
—  The  manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese  is  being  encouraged 
in  new  regions,  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  in  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  in  the 
western  states.  There  has  also  sprung  up  a  considerable 
demand  for  the  lactic  acid  group  of  cheeses,  especially 
Neufchatel  and  Cottage,  so  that  while  the  cheese  industry 
may  decline  in  certain  sections,  the  total  production  will 
probably  increase.  In  the  proper  locations  or  sections, 
the  cheese  industry  has  a  very  bright  future.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  skimmed-milk  cheeses  will  undoubtedly  be 
given  considerable  attention  in  the  next  few  years. 

REFERENCES 

N.  Y.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  54,  The  Dairy  Industry  in  New  York  State. 
N.  Y.  Produce  Rev.  and  American  Creamery. 

Vol.  34,  No.    3,  page  108. 

Vol.  37,  No.  16,  page  684. 

Vol.  37,  No.  16,  page  666. 

Vol.  37,  No.    9,  page  411. 

Vol.  33,  No.  11,  page  482. 

Vol.  36,  No.  23,  page  1078. 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Rept.  1897,  pages  113-149. 
U.  S.  Census. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Year  Books. 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 
Statistical  abstract  of  the  U.  S. 
Canadian  Dept.  Agr.  1915,  Report  of  the  dairy  and  cold  storage 

commissioner. 
Dominion  of  Canada,  Census  and  Statistics  office,  Rept.  1915. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
TESTING 

IN  connection  with  marketing,  a  certain  amount  of 
testing  of  the  products  should  be  practiced,  to  determine 
exactly  the  results  and  grades  of  products.  This  includes 
the  testing  of  the  whole  milk,  whey  and  cheese  for  fat, 
the  milk  for  casein,  and  the  cheese  for  moisture.  In 
factories  in  which  the  milk  is  bought  on  the  fat  basis, 
it  is  necessary  to  test  each  patron's  milk  for  fat.  If  there 
is  a  cheese-moisture  law  in  the  state,  it  is  necessary  to 
test  for  moisture.  The  whey  should  be  tested  to  learn 
the  loss  of  fat  in  the  manufacturing  process  and  to  ascertain 
whether  the  losses  have  been  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

308.  The  fat  test.  —  The  test  commonly  used  to  de- 
termine the  fat  in  milk  is  known  as  the  Babcock.  The 
principle  of  this  test  is  as  follows :  Fat  exists  in  the  form 
of  very  small  globules.  Because  the  fat  globules  are  lighter 
than  the  other  milk  constituents,  under  the  influence  of 
the  force  of  gravity  most  of  them  rise  to  the  surface. 
There,  mixed  with  the  other  milk  substances,  these  glob- 
ules form  a  layer  of  cream.  Babcock  found  that  by  add- 
ing to  the  milk  sulfuric  acid  of  proper  strength  and 
temperature,  the  casein,  the  milk-sugar  and  the  albumin 
are  decomposed  and  the  sticky  quality  of  the  milk  is 
destroyed.  The  acid  does  not  decompose  the  fat  but 
leaves  it  free  to  come  to  the  surface  of  the  mixture.  Under 

327 


328 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


centrifugal  force,  this  fat  is  quickly  brought  to  the  surface. 
By  using  a  known  quantity  of  milk  and  having  a  scale 
graduated  in  percentage  of  the  amount  of  milk,  the 
percentage  of  fat  can  be  determined.  Fig.  69  shows 
the  necessary  equipment. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  bottles  employed  in  making 
the  test,  one  with  a  very  large  neck  which  is  used  when 
testing  materials  high  in  fat-content  such  as  cream, 


FIG.  69.  —  Apparatus  necessary  to  test  milk  and  whey  for  fat  and 
total  solids. 

butter  and  cheese.  This  is  generally  called  a  cream- 
test  bottle.  It  is  graduated  from  0  to  50  per  cent. 
When  testing  materials  with  a  small  amount  of  fat 
such  as  whey,  skim-milk  and  buttermilk,  a  test  bottle 
with  two  necks  is  used,  one  with  a  small  bore  for  the  fat 
and  the  other  neck  with  a  larger  bore  to  add  the  milk, 
acid,  water.  It  is  graduated  from  0  to  0.5  of  1  per  cent. 
There  is  a  third  bottle  between  the  other  two  to  test 


TESTING  329 

whole  milk.  This  is  known  as  a  whole-milk  bottle.  It 
is  graduated  from  0  to  8  per  cent.  All  of  the  glass- 
ware should  comply  with  the  laws. 

309.  Sampling  the  milk.  —  One  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  testing  is  to  obtain  a  fair  sample  of  the  milk. 
The  milk  to  be  tested  may  be  in  a  vat  or  in  a  farmer's 
can  or  a  composite  sample  jar.  If  the  milk  is  bought 
on  the  fat  basis,  that  of  each  patron  is  not  tested  daily, 
but  a  small  quantity,  about  half  an  ounce,  is  taken 
each  day  and  placed  in  a  jar;  this  is  known  as  a  com- 
posite sample.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  number  the 
patrons  and  have  a  sample  bottle  for  each  patron  with 
his  number  on  it.  Some  substance  must  be  added  to 
preserve  the  milk  and  to  keep  it  from  souring  or  coagu- 
lating. It  is  difficult  to  secure  a  fair  sample  of  sour  milk. 
A  wide-mouthed  jar  is  preferred  for  keeping  milk  samples. 
This  must  be  kept  closed  to  prevent  evaporation.  Each 
day  when  milk  is  added  to  the  composite  sample,  the 
bottles  should  be  shaken  to  prevent  the  cream  drying. 
Composite  samples  are  tested  at  least  twice  a  month. 
The  milk  may  be  mixed  to  obtain  a  fair  sample,  by  stir- 
ring in  the  vat  or  by  pouring  from  one  bottle  to  another. 
Vigorous  shaking  should  be  avoided  as  this  is  likely  to  cause 
churning.  One  should  see  that  all  the  cream  is  removed 
from  the  sides  of  the  sample  bottle  and  that  it  is  evenly 
distributed  through  the  milk.  The  sample  of  milk  is 
now  measured  out  with  the  pipette.  This  is  graduated 
to  deliver  18  grams  of  milk,  and  holds  17.6  c.c.  Hold  the 
pipette  between  the  thumb  and  second  finger  of  the  right 
hand  with  the  tip  below  the  surface  of  the  milk,  draw  the 
milk  by  suction  with  the  lips  until  it  is  filled  well  above 
the  graduation.  Quickly  place  the  forefinger  over  the 
opening  and  at  right  angles  to  the  pipette.  By  gently 


330  THE  BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

and  carefully  raising  the  forefinger,  allow  the  milk  to  run 
down  until  the  surface  is  exactly  level  with  the  gradua- 
tion. To  obtain  an  accurate  reading,  the  pipette  should 
be  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  Then  with  the  left  hand, 
hold  the  milk  test  bottle  in  a  slanting  position  and  place 
the  tip  of  the  pipette  into  it  about  one-third  of  an  inch 
and  at  a  slight  angle.  Now  let  the  milk  slowly  flow  down 
the  side  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  making  certain  that 
none  is  blown  out  by  the  escaping  air.  When  all  has  run 
out  of  the  pipette,  blow  out  the  drop  which  remains  in 
the  tip.  Then  measure  out  another  sample  in  the  same 
way,  as  the  test  should  be  made  in  duplicate. 

310.  Adding  the  acid.  —  The  sulfuric  acid  should  have 
a  specific  gravity  between  1.82  and  1.83.  It  should 
be  kept  in  glass-stoppered  bottles  or  carboys  to  prevent 
the  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  air,  which  will  reduce 
its  strength.  Acid  that  is  too  strong  might  burn  the  fat. 
The  acid  is  a  strong  poison  and  will  burn  if  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  flesh  or  the  clothing.  In  such  case,  it 
should  be  removed  by  washing  with  plenty  of  water.  An 
alkaline  substance  such  as  ammonia  or  bicarbonate  of  soda 
should  be  applied  to  remove  any  acid  not  washed  away. 

The  acid  measure  holds  17.5  c.c.  and  it  should  be  filled  to 
the  graduation.  Then  this  acid  should  be  added  to  the  test 
bottle.  The  bottle  should  be  held  at  an  angle  and  slowly 
rotated  so  that  the  acid  will  rinse  down  any  milk  remain- 
ing in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  Immediately  mix  the  acid 
and  milk  by  whirling  the  body  of  the  bottle  in  a  circle  five  or 
six  inches  in  diameter.  The  mixture  should  not  be  allowed 
to  go  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  while  mixing.  Continue 
shaking  for  about  a  minute  after  all  the  curd  has  disap- 
peared. One  should  avoid  pointing  the  neck  of  the  bottle 
toward  any  person  in  the  mixing  operation.  The  acid 


TESTING  331 

unites  with  all  the  milk  substances  except  the  fat  and 
generates  much  heat. 

311.  Centrifuging.  —  There  are  two  machines  in  com- 
mon use  for  centrifuging,  one  that  runs  by  mechanical 
power  and  the  other  smaller  and  runs  by  hand.     If  the 
machine  and  atmosphere  are  very  cold,  the  apparatus 
can  be  warmed  by  placing  hot  water  in  it.     This  is  not 
necessary  in  a  steam  machine.     In  a  factory  where  there 
are  a  number,  of  samples  to  test,  a  power  machine  is  usually 
employed.     In  this  machine  there  are  pockets  or  cups  in 
which   to   set  the  test   bottles.     The   machine   or  disk 
must  be  balanced  by  placing  bottles  in  opposite  pockets. 
These  pockets  are  hinged  so  that  when  standing  still  the 
bottle  is  in  an  upright  position  and  when  the  centrifuge 
is  running,  it  is  in  a  horizontal  position.     The  machine 
should  then  be  covered  and  started  running.     It  should 
be  run  at  the  speed  indicated.     After  five  minutes,  stop 
the  machine  and  fill  the  bottles  with  boiling  water  up  to 
the  neck.     This  can  be  done  without  taking  the  bottles 
out  of  the  machine.     A  pipette  or  slender-spouted  vessel 
may  be  used  to  add  the  water.     Whirl  the  bottles  two 
minutes,  then  add  more  boiling  water  to  bring  the  fat 
column  into  the  graduated  part  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 
Then  whirl  one  minute.     The  test  should  be  read  at  once 
or  the  bottles  kept  at  a  temperature  of  130°  to  140°  F.  until 
ready  to  read. 

312.  Reading  the  test.  —  To  read  the  test,  subtract 
the  reading  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column  from  that 
at  the  highest  point.     The  curved  meniscus  which  always 
forms  at  the  top  of  the  fat  column  should  be  included 
in  the  reading.     Duplicate  samples  should  not  vary  more 
than  0.2  of  1  per  cent.     Standard  Babcock  test  bottles 
and  pipettes  should  always  be  used.     In  some  states  the 


332  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

agricultural  experiment  stations  examine  all  glassware 
and  mark  it  to  make  certain  that  it  conforms  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  state  law.  In  New  York,  glassware 
found  to  be  correct  is  branded  "  S.  B.,"  which  means 
State  Brand.  In  some  states  a  person  must  have  a 
license  to  test  milk  or  cream,  when  it  is  paid  for  on  the 
fat  test.  Such  a  person  must  pass  an  examination  to 
show  that  he  understands  the  test  before  a  license,  will  be 
granted.  The  license  may  be  revoked  if  the  work  is  not 
honestly  performed. 

313.  Testing   whey   for   fat.  —  Because   of   the   small 
amount  of  fat  in  whey,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  repre- 
sentative sample.     The  best  way,  if  the  entire  amount 
cannot  be  placed  in  a  vat  and  stirred,  is  to  catch  a  little 
of  the  whey  at  intervals  as  it  is  being  drawn  from  the  vat. 
The  sample  to  be  tested  is  measured  with  the  pipette 
the  same  as  the  milk  and  placed  in  the  skimmed-milk  test 
bottle.     The  same  acid  is  used  to  test  whey  as  to  test 
milk  but  because  there  are  not  so  many  solids  to  destroy, 
not  so  much  is  used.     If  as  much  acid  is  used  with  whey 
as  with  milk,  it  will  burn  the  fat  and  so  interfere  with 
the  reading  of  the  test.     Just  enough  acid  is  added  to 
destroy  the  milk  substances  except  the  fat,  or  enough  to 
turn  the  contents  of  the  test  bottle  dark  brown.     This 
usually  requires  filling  the  acid  measure  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  under  the  graduation.     The  remainder  of  the 
test  is  the  same  as  for  whole  milk. 

314.  Testing  cheese  for  fat.  —  The  sample  of  cheese 
to  test  for  fat  is  obtained  by  removing  the  sample  with  a 
cheese-trier.     This  sample  is  called  a  "  plug."     Different 
plugs  from  the  same  cheese  will  test  various  percentages 
of  fat  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  representative 
sample.     The  usual  practice  is  to  take  three  plugs,  one 


TESTING 


333 


near  the  center,  another  near  the  outside  and  the  third 
between  the  first  two.  The  plugs  should  be  put  into 
glass-stoppered  bottles  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of 
moisture.  These  plugs  are  then  chopped  up  very  fine. 
It  is  of  course  impossible  to  measure  the  cheese  as  with 
milk  and  whey,  but  it  is  weighed  (Fig.  70).  If  the  cheese 
is  soft  it  can  be  stirred  with  a  spatula  until  well  mixed. 
A  soft  cheese  usually  sticks  to  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle. 


FIG.  70.  —  Apparatus  necessary  to  test  cheese  for  fat. 

After  being  weighed,  it  can  be  dissolved  in  a  little  sodium 
hydroxide  and  poured  into  the  bottle.  Different  amounts 
may  be  used,  commonly  4i  or  6  grams,  but  6  grams  is  to  be 
preferred.  This  is  placed  in  the  Babcock  cream  bottle  since 
there  will  usually  be  more  fat  than  can  be  read  in  a  milk 
bottle.  After  the  material  has  been  placed  in  the  test 
bottle,  about  two-thirds  of  an  acid-measure  of  warm 
water  is  added  to  assist  in  dissolving  the  cheese. 

The  acid  is  added  the  same  as  with  the  milk.     If  all 


334  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

the  cheese  particles  are  not  destroyed,  and  therefore  do 
not  disappear,  a  little  more  acid  will  complete  the  solu- 
tion. Centrifuging  is  performed  as  with  the  milk. 

315.  Reading  the  test.  —  In  a  cream-test    bottle  the 
neck  is  so  much  wider  that  there  is  a  much  larger  meniscus. 
In  order  to  obtain  an  accurate  result,  the  meniscus  should 
be  removed.     This  is  done  by  carefully  adding  a  substance 
called  glymol,  which  is  a  mineral  oil  colored  red.     Usually 
about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  of  glymol  is  added  to  the 
fat  column.     This  should  not  mix  with  the  fat.     The 
bottles  should  be  placed  in  a  hot  water  bath  135°  to  140°  F. 
for  four  minutes  before  reading.     The  temperature  at 
reading  should  be  135°  to  140°  F.     The  reading  is  then 
•taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column  to  the  line 
between  this  and  the  glymol.     The  bottle  is  graduated 
for  18  grams  of  material,  but  as  only  a  part  of  18  grams 
of  cheese  was  used  for  the  test,  the  reading  should  be 
multiplied  by  the  part  of  18  grams  used.     For  example, 
suppose  6  grams  of  cheese  were  used  and  the  test  read 
12  per  cent  fat.     Since  6  is  one  third  of  18,  the  actual 
percentage  of  fat  is  3  times  12,  or  36  per  cent. 

316.  The  Hart 1  casein  test  was  devised  to  determine 
the  percentage  of  casein  in  milk.     A  special  test  bottle 
and  centrifuge  are   necessary.     The  method  of  making 
the  test   is   as   follows :    Place  2  c.c.  of   chloroform   in 
the  casein  test   tube,  add   20  c.c.  of   a  0.25  of  1  per 
cent  solution  of  acetic  acid  at  a  temperature  of  65°  to 
75°  F.     This  solution  of  acetic  acid  is  made  by  dilut- 
ing 10  c.c  of  glacial  acetic  acid  with  100  c.c.  of  water, 
then  dilute  25  c.c.  of  this  solution  to  1000  c.c.  with  water; 
5  c.c.  of  milk  at  a  temperature  of  65°  to  75°  F.  is  then  run 

1  Hart,  E.  B.,  A  simple  test  for  casein  in  milk  and  its  relation 
to  the  dairy  industry,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  156,  pages  1-22,  1907. 


TESTING  335 

into  the  bottle.  The  bottle  is  then  covered  with  the 
thumb  and  inverted  and  the  mixture  shaken  vigorously 
for  exactly  twenty  seconds.  It  is  then  centri- 
fuged  within  twenty  minutes  at  a  speed  of 
2000  revolutions  a  minute.  The  bottle  should 
stand  ten  minutes  before  reading  the  per- 
centage of  casein.  There  are  other  tests  for 
casein  but  they  are  very  complicated. 

317.  Solids  in  the  milk.  —  Because  not  only 
the  fat  but  all  the  solids  are  utilized  in  cheese- 
making,  it  is  important  to  know  the  amount 
of  the  solids  in  the  milk.     This  is  ascertained 
by  determining  the  specific  gravity  of   the 
milk  and  knowing  the  fat-content ;  the  solids 
not  fat  can  then  be  calculated. 

318.  The  lactometer. — The  specific  gravity 
of    liquids   is   measured   by   an   instrument 
called  a  hydrometer.     Its  use  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  when  a  solid  body  floats  in  a 
liquid,  it  displaces  a  volume  of  liquid  equal 
in  weight  to  its  own.     Hydrometers  are  in 
many  cases  so  made  that  the  specific  gravity 
can  be  read  at  the  point  where  the  scale  is 
even  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  liquid.     A 
hydrometer  that  is  especially  adapted  to  milk 
is  called  a  lactometer.     There  are  two  lac- 
tometers in  common  use,  the  Quevenne  and 

the  Board  of  Health.  FIG.  71.  — A 

The  Quevenne  lactometer.  —  This  is  a  long       Quevenne 
slender  hollow  piece  of  glass  weighted  at  the 
bottom  to  make  it  float  in  the  milk  in  an  upright  position 
(Fig.  71) .     The  upper  end  is  slender  and  contains  the  scale. 
This  scale  is  graduated  from  15  at  the  top  to  40  at  the 


336 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


bottom.  Each  reading  on  the  scale  corresponds  to  the 
point  marked  specific  gravity  on  a  hydrometer,  except  that 
the  figures  are  not  complete.  For  example,  15 
on  the  Quevenne  scale  means  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.015;  a  reading  of  30  on  the  Quevenne 
scale  means  a  specific  gravity  of  1.030,  and  so 
on.  The  Quevenne  lactometer  is  graduated 
to  give  correct  results  at  a  temperature  of 
60°  F.  The  milk  should  be  at  this  temper- 
ature. If  the  temperature  is  below  or  above 
this,  a  correction  must  be  made  to  the  read- 
ing. The  temperature  should  not  be  more 
than  10  degrees  above  or  below  60°  F.  The 
correction  for  each  degree  in  variation  of  tem- 
perature can  be  made  by  adding  0.1  or  sub- 
tracting 0.1  from  the  lactometer  reading,  as 
the  case  may  be.  If  the  temperature  is  above 
60°  F.,  the  correction  is  added  to  the  lactom- 
eter and  if  it  is  below  60°  F.,  the  correction 
is  subtracted  from  the  lactometer  reading. 
The  reading  should  be  taken  when  the  lac- 
tometer is  floating  free  in  the  milk.  The 
scale  is  read  exactly  at  the  surface  of  the  milk. 
The  better  lactometers  have  a  thermometer 
with  the  scale  just  above  or  opposite  the 
lactometer  scale. 

The  Board  of  Health  lactometer.  —  This  is 
IBoard~of    verv    similar    to    the    Quevenne    lactometer 
Health  lac-    except  that  the  scale  is  graduated  from  0  to 
120  (Fig.  72).     The  point  on  the  scale  of  the 
lactometer  that  floats  at  the  surface  in  water  is  represented 
by  0,  and  100  represents  the  specific  gravity  of  1.029.     On 
the  Board  of  Health  lactometer,  the  100  degrees  or  divi- 


TESTING  337 

sions  from  0  to  100  equal  29  divisions  on  the  Quevenne. 
Therefore,  one  division  on  the  Board  of  Health  equals 
0.29  of  a  division  on  the  Quevenne.  To  convert  Board  of 
Health  reading  to  Quevenne,  multiply  by  0.29  and  to 
convert  Quevenne  to  Board  of  Health,  divide  by  0.29. 
The  correction  for  temperatures  above  or  below  60°  F. 
is  made  the  same  as  with  the  Quevenne,  except  0.3  is 
added  or  subtracted  from  the  reading  instead  of  0.1  as 
with  the  Quevenne. 

319.  Calculating  the  solids  not  fat  in  the  milk.  —  When 
the  lactometer  reading  and  fat-content  of  the  milk  are 
known,  there  are  several  formulas  for  calculating  the 
solids  not  fat.  In  the  following  formulas,  L  equals  Que- 
venne lactometer  reading  at  60°  F.,  and  F  equals  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk : 


3.8 
L  +  F 


=  S.N.F. 


y  +  0.2  F  +  0.14  =  S.N.F. 
4 

320.  Testing  cheese  for  moisture.1  —  There  are  two 
methods  of  testing  cheese  for  moisture.  The  following 
is  a  simple  test  devised  by  H.  C.  Troy : 

The  ordinary  butter  moisture  test,  in  which  a  metal 
cup  is  heated  over  a  flame,  cannot  be  used  for  determining 
the  percentage  of  water  in  cheese  because  the  high  tem- 
perature developed  in  operating  that  test  drives  from 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  The  moisture  test  in  the  cheese  factory, 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  81,  1917. 

Troy,  H.  C.,  A  cheese  moisture  test,  N.  Y.  (Cornell)  Exp. 
Sta.  Ext.  Bui.  17,  1917. 


338  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

the  cheese  other  substances  with  the  water.  Also,  par- 
ticles are  lost  by  spattering  when  the  cheese  is  heated 
with  any  degree  of  rapidity  in  the  shallow  butter-moisture 
cups.  To  overcome  these  difficulties,  the  new  method 
here  described  has  been  developed  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  cheese.  The 
apparatus  consists  of: 

1  double-walled  copper  drying  cup 

1  centigrade  thermometer  registering  to  200° 

1  alcohol  lamp 

1  tripod 

1  special  flask 

1  scales  sensitive  to  0.01  gram 

1  set  of  weights,  0.01  to  100  grams 

The  body  of  the  copper  drying  cup  may  be  made  in 
two  parts.  One  of  the  parts  is  a  jacket  that  forms  the 
outer  wall  of  the  apparatus.  It  has  a  flat  bottom  4J 
inches  in  diameter,  and  the  perpendicular  wall  is  4^ 
inches  in  height.  The  inner  part  of  the  cup  must  have 
a  flat  bottom  2f  inches  in  diameter  and  a  side  wall  3f 
inches  high.  A  flange  attached  to  the  upper  rim  of  the 
inner  part  extends  out  at  right  angles  to  the  cup  wall  and 
forms  a  cover  for  the  space  between  the  walls  when  the 
two  parts  are  put  together.  The  flange  is  bent  down 
around  its  outer  edge  to  make  it  fit  snugly  over  the  upper 
rim  of  the  outer  jacket.  It  thus  holds  the  inner  cup 
securely  in  place,  leaving  a  space  about  f  inch  wide  for 
oil  between  the  walls  and  bottoms,  and  permits  the 
apparatus  to  be  taken  apart  readily.  A  circular  opening 
about  |  inch  in  diameter  is  made  through  the  flange  to 
permit  the  insertion  of  a  thermometer  for  taking  the 
temperature  of  the  oil  or  the  melted  fat  which  is  used  in 


TESTING  339 

the  space  between  the  walls.  Lard  or  tallow  serves  best 
for  use  in  this  space;  a  readily  inflammable  oil  should 
not  be  employed.  The  thermometer  may  be  permanently 
held  in  place  by  passing  it  snugly  through  a  hole  bored 
in  a  cork,  the  cork  being  then  fitted  into  the  hole  through 
the  flange.  A  flat  metal  cover  is  placed  on  the  cup 
when  making  a  test.  This  cover  has  a  hole  through 
the  center  just  large  enough  to  permit  the  neck  of  the 
drying  flask  to  extend  up  through  it.  The  cover  assists 
in  keeping  the  body  of  the  flask  at  a  constant  temperature 
by  preventing  the  entrance  of  cold  air  currents.  The 
thermometer  should  -register  changes  in  temperature 
between  zero  and  200°  C.  The  alcohol  lamp  should  yield 
a  flame  about  \  inch  in  diameter  and  f  inch  high.  The 
tripod  should  be  about  6  inches  high  and  of  proper  diam- 
eter at  the  top  to  support  the  oil  bath. 

An  ordinary  flat-bottom  glass  Erlenmeyer  flask,  of 
such  a  diameter  as  to  fit  neatly  into  the  oil-bath  cup,  may 
be  used  to  hold  the  cheese  during  the  drying  operation; 
but  a  special  glass  flask  serves  better.  It  is  made  with 
a  flat  bottom  2J  inches  in  diameter,  which  will  fit  into 
the  cup  of  the  drying  apparatus.  The  side  walls  of  this 
flask  should  be  perpendicular  for  about  1  inch,  when 
they  should  begin  to  slope  in  toward  the  base  of  the 
neck,  which  should  be  located  about  2  inches  above  the 
bottom.  The  neck  of  the  flask  should  be  1  inch  in  diam- 
eter, with  perpendicular  walls,  and  its  length  should  give 
the  flask  a  total  height  of  4f  inches.  When  the  apparatus 
(Fig.  73)  is  put  together  for  the  first  time,  the  melted  fat 
or  oil  may  be  placed  in  the  outer  jacket  and  the  inner 
cup  may  then  be  fitted  into  position,  or  the  parts  may 
be  put  together  first  and  the  oil  then  poured  into  the 
space  between  the  cup  walls  through  the  opening  where 


340  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

the  thermometer  is  to  be  placed.  The  oil  should  fill 
the  space  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top.  The  cork  through 
which  the  thermometer  has  been  passed  is  then  fitted 
into  the  opening.  The  thermometer  bulb  should  be 
placed  in  the  oil  about  half  an  inch  above  the  bottom  of 
the  outer  jacket.  The  apparatus  is  then  placed  on  the 


FIG.  73.  —  Apparatus  necessary  to  test  cheese  for  moisture. 

tripod  over  the  alcohol  lamp.  A  flame  |  inch  in  diameter 
and  |  inch  high  will  give  sufficient  heat  to  hold  the  bath 
at  the  proper  temperature.  The  temperature  may  be 
regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  the  lamp  or  by  changing 
the  size  of  the  flame  by  adjusting  the  wick.  Hundreds 
of  tests  may  be  run  without  taking  the  apparatus  apart 


TESTING  341 

or  changing  the  oil.  The  copper  drying  cup  can  be  made 
by  any  tinsmith.  The  other  parts  may  be  ordered 
through  any  dairy  or  chemical  supply  company. 

In  operating  the  test,  the  alcohol  lamp  is  first  lighted, 
so  that  the  oil  bath  may  be  warming  while  the  test  sample 
is  under  preparation.  A  representative  sample  of  the 
cheese,  which  may  be  taken  with  a  cheese-trier  and  held 
in  a  glass-stoppered  sample  jar,  is  then  cut  into  particles 
about  the  size  of  kernels  of  wheat  without  removing  it 
from  the  jar.  This  may  be  accomplished  with  an  ordinary 
table  knife  that  has  had  the  end  squared  and  sharpened. 
The  clean  dry  flask  is  then  accurately  balanced  on  the 
scales  and  a  5-gram  weight  is  placed  in  the  opposite  scale 
pan.  Particles  of  cheese  from  the  prepared  sample  are  put 
into  the  flask  until  the  scales  comes  to  an  exact  balance. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  loss  of  moisture 
from  the  cheese  in  the  preparation  of  the  sample. 

With  the  thermometer  in  the  oil  bath  registering 
between  140°  and  145°  C.  (or  between  284°  and  293° 
F.),  the  flask  is  placed  in  the  cup  of  the  oil  bath  and 
the  flat  disk-shaped  cover  is  adjusted  over  the  ap- 
paratus. The  flask  should  remain  in  the  bath  for  fifty 
minutes,  the  temperature  being  kept  between  140°  and 
145°  C.  all  the  time.  The  flask  is  then  removed,  covered 
and  allowed  to  cool  to  room  temperature  in  a  dry  place. 
It  is  then  weighed,  and  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing 
the  loss  in  weight  by  the  original  weight,  multiplied  by 
100,  gives  the  percentage  of  water  in  the  cheese.  The 
following  shows  the  method  of  computation : 

Problem :  Five  grams  of  cheese  was  heated  until  the 
water  contained  in  it  was  evaporated.  The  remaining 
substance  weighed  3.15  grams.  What  percentage  of 
water  did  the  cheese  contain? 


342  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Answer:  5.00  -  3.15  =  1.85 
1.85-7-5  =  0.37 
0.37  X  100  =  37  (percentage  of  water  in  cheese) 

A  butter-moisture  scales  with  an  extra  5-gram  weight 
may  be  used  for  weighing  out  the  5  grams  of  cheese.  If 
the  scales  indicates  the  amount  of  moisture  in  10  grams 
of  butter  by  percentage  graduations  on  its  beam  or  by 
percentage  weights,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  multiply 
by  2  the  percentage  indicated  by  such  scales  or  percentage 
weights  when  only  5  grams  of  cheese  is  used. 

The  moisture  may  be  determined  by  weighing  out  a 
small  sample  of  cheese  and  drying  it  in  an  oven  and  calling 
the  loss  moisture.  Many  such  ovens  have  been  devised. 

New  York  and  Wisconsin  have  laws  limiting  the 
amount  of  water  which  may  be  incorporated  in  Ched- 
dar cheese.  New  York  places  the  limit  at  39  per  cent 
and  Wisconsin  at  40  per  cent.  If  the  moisture-content 
is  above  this,  the  cheese  must  be  branded  adulterated. 


CHAPTER  XX 
MARKETING 

MARKETING  is  related  to  cheese  in  two  ways:  First, 
the  purchase  of  the  raw  material,  the  milk;  and 
secondly  the  sale  of  the  finished  product,  the  cheese. 

321.  Buying  milk.  —  The  method  of  paying  for  the 
milk  differs  in  the  various  cheese  sections  and  factories. 
At  some  factories  a  stated  price  is  paid  for  the  milk  or 
the  fat.     This  is  usually  in  terms  of  100  pounds  of  milk 
or  for  each  pound  of  fat.     This  is   the    practice    with 
concerns  possessing  large  capital.     Other  factories  make 
the  milk  into  cheese  and  after  each  sale,  the  expenses 
necessary  for  operating  the  factory  are  deducted  and  the 
remainder   of   the   money  divided  among   the   patrons. 
This    money    is    divided    either    on    the    basis   of    the 
number  of  pounds  of  milk  or  of  fat  delivered.     The  ques- 
tion  arises  as  to  which  is  the    better  method   to   buy 
milk  for  cheese-making,  or  the  fairest  way  to  divide  the 
money  received  from  a  sale  of  cheese. 

322.  Cheese  yield  basis  of  buying  milk.  —  Let  us  sup- 
pose that  at  a  cheese  factory  there  were  five  patrons: 

(A)  delivered  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  3  per  cent  fat ; 

(B)  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5  per  cent  fat;    (C)  100 
pounds  of  milk  testing  4.0  per  cent  fat ;   (D)  100  pounds 
of  milk  testing  4.5  per  cent  fat ;   and  (E)  100  pounds  of 
milk  testing  5.0  per  cent  fat.     Table  XXVI  shows  the 

343 


344 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


actual  number  of  pounds  of  cheese  containing  37  per 
cent  moisture  which  100  pounds  of  milk  containing 
different  percentages  of  fat  will  produce.  The  cheese 
sold  net  for  20  cents  a  pound. 


TABLE   XXVI 

SHOWING  PAYMENTS  FOR  MILK  BASED  ON  THE  ACTUAL  YIELD 
OF  CHEESE 


PATRON 

POUNDS 
OF  MILK 
DELIVERED 

PER  CENT 
OF  FAT  IN 
MILK 

YIELD  OF 
CHEESE  CON- 
TAINING 37  % 
MOISTURE 

PRICE  A 
POUND 

AMOUNT 
DUE  EACH 
PATRON 

A 

100 

3.0 

8.30 

$.20 

$1.66 

B 

100 

3.5 

9.45 

.20 

1.89 

C 

100 

4.0 

10.60 

.20 

2.12 

D 

100 

4.5 

11.74 

.20 

2.348 

E 

100 

5.0 

12.90 

.20 

2.58 

Total 

500 

20 

52.99 

.20 

10.598 

This  table  shows  the  amount  of  money  each  patron 
should  receive  if  the  money  were  divided  on  the  basis  of 
the  actual  yield  of  cheese. 

323.  Fat  basis  for  payment  of  milk.  —  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  same  five  patrons  delivered  the  same  quantity  of 
milk  testing  the  same  percentages  of  fat  and  that  the 
cheese  sold  for  the  same  price.  A  total  of  20  pounds  of 
fat  was  delivered  and  the  cheese  sold  for  $10.598 ;  by  divid- 
ing this  amount  by  the  pounds  of  fat  delivered,  the  price 
or  value  of  one  pound  of  fat  is  found  to  be  $.5299.  Multi- 
plying the  pounds  of  fat  each  patron  delivered  by  the 
price  a  pound  would  give  the  amount  of  money  due  each 
patron. 


MARKETING 


345 


TABLE    XXVII 

SHOWING  PAYMENTS  FOR  MILK  BASED  ON  FAT-CONTENT  OF 

MILK 


PATRON 

POUNDS 
OP  MILK 
DELIVERED 

PER  CENT 
op  FAT  IN 
MILK 

POUNDS  OF  FAT 
DELIVERED 

VALUE  OP 
POUND  OP 
FAT 

AMOUNT  DUE 
EACH  PATRON 

A 

100 

3.0 

3.0 

$.5299 

$1.58 

B 

100 

3.5 

3.5 

.5299 

1.85 

C 

100 

4.0 

4.0 

.5299 

2.12 

D 

100 

4.5 

4.5 

.5299 

2.38 

E 

100 

5.0 

5.0 

.5299 

2.65 

324.  Weight  basis  or  pooling  method  for  payment  of 
milk.  —  By  this  system,  each  patron  would  receive  an 
equal  price  for  100  pounds  of  milk.     If  the  same  supposi- 
tion is  taken  as  before,  there  would  be  500  pounds  of 
milk  delivered  and  the  cheese  sold  for  $10.59;  each  100 
pounds  of  milk  would  be  worth  $2.12.     As  each  patron 
delivered  an  equal  weight  of  milk,  each  would  receive 
an  equal  amount  of  money,  or  $2.12. 

325.  Fat-plus-two    method    for    payment    of    milk.  - 
Some  workers  have  thought  that  by  adding  two  to  the 
fat  test,  the  division  of  money  would  be  more  nearly  the 
true  cheese-producing  value  of  the  milk.     The  amount 
due  each  patron  is  figured  as  in  the  fat  basis,  except  that 
two  is  added  to  the  fat  test  and  this  is  used  as  the  basis 
of    division.     If    the    same    suppositions    were    used    as 
before,  each  patron  would  receive  the  amount  shown  in 
Table  XXVIII. 

326.  Comparison  of  methods.  —  The  best  way  to  judge 
the  different  methods'  of  paying  for  milk  is  to  compare 
them  with  the  true  value  based  on  the  actual  cheese 
yield  as  shown  in  Table  XXIX. 


346 


THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 


TABLE   XXVIII 

SHOWING  PAYMENTS  FOR  MILK  BY  FAT-PLUS-TWO  METHODS 


PATRON 

POUNDS 
JOF  MILK 
DELIVERED 

PER  CENT 
OP  FAT  IN 
MILK 

FAT  PLUS 
Two 

POUNDS 
OP  FAT 
DELIVERED 

VALUE  OP 
POUND  OP 
FAT 

AMOUNT 
DUE  EACH 
PATRON 

A 

100 

3.0 

5.0 

5.0 

$.353 

$1.76 

B 

100 

3.5 

5.5 

5.5 

.353 

1.94 

C 

100 

4.0 

6.0 

6.0 

.353 

2.12 

D 

100 

4.5 

6.5 

6.5 

'.353 

2.29 

E 

100 

5.0 

7.0 

7.0 

.353 

2.47 

TABLE   XXIX 

SHOWING    THE    COMPARISON     OF    THE     DIFFERENT    METHODS 
OF  PAYING  FOR  MILK  AT  CHEESE  FACTORIES 


PERCENTAGE 

ERROR  IN  PAYMENT  PER  100  POUNDS  OP  MILK  BY 

MILK 

Pooling  System 

Fat  Basis 

Fat-Plus-Two 
Method 

A 

3.0 

+  $0.46 

-  $0.08 

+  $0.10 

B 

3.5 

+    0.23 

0.04 

+    0.05 

C 

4.0 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

D 

4.5 

-    0.23 

+    0.04 

-  0.05 

E 

5.0 

-    0.46 

+    0.08 

-  0.10 

A  careful  study  of  the  above  table  shows  that  the  pool- 
ing system  is  in  favor  of  the  dairy-man  with  the  poor 
milk,  and  that  the  fat  basis  favors  the  dairy-man  with 
the  rich  milk.  This  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  fact  that  the 
casein  does  not  increase  in  the  milk  quite  in  proportion 
to  the  fat.  With  the  pooling  system  or  fat  basis  of  pay- 
ment, no  account  is  taken  of  the  casein ;  but  the  fat-plus- 
two  system  is  an  attempt  to  recognize  the  casein,  but 
considers  the  percentage  of  casein  in  all  milk  to  be  the 


MARKETING  347 

same.  This  method  is  in  favor  of  the  dairy-man  with 
milk  low  in  fat,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  the  pooling  sys- 
tem. The  latter  system  considers  the  cheese-producing 
power  of  all  milk  to  be  the  same.  It  favors  the  dairy- 
man with  low-testing  milk.  The  fat  basis  for  payment 
recognizes  only  the  fat  and  is  an  advantage  to  the  dairy- 
man with  the  high-testing  milk  but  not  to  the  extent  that 
the  pooling  system  is  in  favor  of  the  low-testing  milk. 
The  fat-plus-two  method  recognizes  2  per  cent  of  casein 
in  the  milk.  This  favors  the  dairy-men  with  low-testing 
milk.  Other  methods 1  of  paying  for  milk  have  been 
devised.  Because  the  actual  yield  of  cheese  from  the  milk 
of  different  herds  cannot  be  easily  determined  at  the  cheese 
factory,  this  method  of  payment  cannot  be  employed. 
In  localities  in  which  all  the  dairy-men  have  the  same 
breed  of  cattle  and  there  is  not  a  wide  variation  in  the 
fat  percentage,  the  fat  basis  is  usually  found  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory  way  to  pay  for  the  milk. 

327.  Laws  governing  the  production  and  sale  of  milk. 
-Many  states  have  laws  regulating  the  sanitary  condi- 
tions under  which  the  milk  may  be  produced.  These 
laws  relate  principally  to  the  condition  of  the  stables,  the 
health  of  the  cow,  the  food  given  the  cow,  and  the  care  of 
the  milk.  The  following  law  2  of  Wisconsin  is  a  good 
example : 

"  Adulterated  milk,  what  constitutes.  Section  4607a.  In 
all  prosecutions  under  the  preceding  section,  or  any  other  sec- 
tion of  these  statutes,  or  laws  amendatory  thereof  or  supple- 
mentary thereto,  relating  to  the  sale  of  adulterated  milk  or 
adulterated  cream,  the  term  adulterated  milk  shall  mean: 
milk  containing  less  than  three  per  centum  of  milk  fat,  or  milk 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  Correct  payment  for  cheese  factory  milk  by 
the  Babcock  test,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  276,  1917. 

2  Dairy  Laws  of  Wisconsin,  1916,  section  4607a. 


348  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

containing  less  than  eight  and  one-half  per  centum  of  milk 
solids  not  fat,  or  milk  drawn  from  cows  within  eight  days  before 
or  four  days  after  parturition,  or  milk  from  which  any  part  of 
the  cream  has  been  removed,  or  milk  which  has  been  diluted 
with  water  or  any  other  fluid,  or  milk  to  which  has  been  added 
or  into  which  has  been  introduced  any  coloring  matter  or  chemi- 
cal or  preservative  or  deleterious  or  filthy  substance  or  any  for- 
eign substance  whatsoever,  or  milk  drawn  from  cows  kept  in  a 
filthy  or  unhealthy  condition,  or  milk  drawn  from  any  sick  or 
diseased  cow  or  cow  having  ulcers  or  other  running  sores,  or 
milk  drawn  from  cows  fed  unwholesome  food,  or  milk  in  any 
stage  of  putrefaction,  or  milk  contaminated  by  being  kept  in 
stables  containing  cattle  or  other  animals.  The  term  adul- 
terated cream  shall  mean  cream  containing  less  than  eighteen 
per  centum  of  milk  fat,  or  cream  taken  from  milk  drawn  from 
cows  within  eight  days  before  or  four  days  after  parturition,  or 
cream  from  milk  to  which  has  been  added  or  introduced  any 
coloring  matter  or  chemical  or  preservative  or  deleterious  or 
filthy  substance  or  any  foreign  substance  whatsoever,  or  cream 
from  milk  drawn  from  cows  kept  in  a  filthy  or  unhealthy  condi- 
tion, or  cream  from  milk  drawn  from  any  sick  or  diseased  cow 
or  cow  having  ulcers  or  other  running  sores,  or  cream  from  milk 
drawn  from  cows  fed  unwholesome  food,  or  cream  contaminated 
by  being  kept  in  stables  containing  cattle  or  other  animals,  or 
cream  to  which  has  been  added  or  into  which  has  been  intro- 
duced any  coloring  matter  or  chemical  or  preservative  or  dele- 
terious or  filthy  substance  or  any  foreign  substance  whatsoever, 
or  cream  in  any  stage  of  putrefaction,  provided,  that  nothing  in 
this  act  shall  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  pasteurized 
milk  or  cream  to  which  viscogen  or  sucrate  of  lime  has  been 
added  solely  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  viscosity,  if  the  same 
be  distinctly  labeled  in  such  manner  as  to  advise  the  purchaser 
of  its  true  character ;  and  providing  that  nothing  in  this  act 
shall  be  construed  as  prohibiting  the  sale  of  milk  commonly 
known  as  '  skimmed  milk,'  when  the  same  is  sold  as  and  for 
*  skimmed  milk.'  Milk  drawn  from  cows  within  eight  days 
before  or  four  days  after  parturition,  or  milk  to  which  has  been 
added  or  into  which  has  been  introduced  any  coloring  matter 
or  chemical  or  preservative  or  deleterious  or  filthy  substance,  or 
milk  drawn  from  cows  kept  in  a  filthy  or  unclean  condition,  or 


MARKETING  349 

milk  drawn  from  any  sick  or  diseased  cow  or  cow  having  ulcers 
or  other  running  sores,  or  milk  drawn  from  cows  fed  unwhole- 
some food,  or  milk  contaminated  by  being  kept  in  stables  con- 
taining cattle  or  other  animals  and  cream  from  any  such  milk, 
or  cream  in  any  stage  of  putrefaction  are  hereby  declared  to  be 
unclean  and  unsanitary  milk  or  unclean  and  unsanitary  cream, 
as  the  case  may  be." 

Most  states  have  laws  which  determine  the  legal 
standard  of  milk.  Any  one  selling  milk  which  does  not 
meet  this  standard  is  liable  to  be  fined.  The  laws  of 
most  states  prohibit  the  taking  of  anything  from  the  milk 
or  the  adding  of  anything  to  it.  This  prohibits  the  skim- 
ming and  watering.  Skimmed-milk  must  be  sold  as  such. 

328.  Marketing  of  cheese.  —  There  are  many  different 
methods  1  of  selling  cheese.  Each  is  adapted  to  certain 
conditions  and  each  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
In  cheese  sections,  the  customary  method  of  selling  is  on 
the  board  of  trade,  which  is  the  meeting  of  the  cheese- 
buyers  and  factory  salesmen.  They  meet  at  a  given  place 
at  a  certain  day  and  hour  each  week.  Every  board  has 
its  officers.  There  are  different  ways  in  which  a  board  of 
trade  may  be  operated.  In  some  cases  there  is  a  large 
blackboard  divided  into  columns.  In  the  first  column, 
the  salesman  writes  the  name  of  the  factory  and  the 
number  and  kind  of  cheese  offered  for  sale.  At  the  top  of 
the  other  columns  are  the  names  of  the  different  cheese- 
buyers.  The  president  usually  opens  the  sale  at  a 
stated  time  and  asks  that  all  cheese  be  placed  on  the 
blackboard.  When  this  is  done  he  states  that  they  are 
ready  to  receive  bids  on  the  cheese.  The  buyers  then 

1  Sammis,  J.  L.,  The  improved  system  of  selling  cheese, 
Hoard's  Dairyman  52  (1916),  15,  pages  5,  11-12. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.,  and  A.  Hobson,  Markets  and  prices  of  Wis- 
consin cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  251,  pages  1-56,  1915. 


350  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

write  the  price  a  pound  they  wish  to  pay  opposite  each 
lot  of  cheese  and  in  the  column  headed  by  their  names. 
After  all  the  bids  have  been  received  and  placed  on  the 
board,  the  presiding  officer  states  that  a  certain  length 
of  time,  usually  fifteen  minutes,  will  be  given  the  salesman 
to  withdraw  his  cheese  if  he  does  not  think  a  high  enough 
price  has  been  offered;  this  is  indicated  by  the  sales- 
man stepping  to  the  blackboard  and  erasing  the  factory 
name  and  number  of  boxes.  At  the  close  of  the  stated 
time,  the  presiding  officer  declares  the  cheese  offered  on 
the  board  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  purchaser 
then  gives  the  salesman  directions  for  shipping. 

Sometimes  a  board  of  trade  has  a  committee  of  one 
member  elected  by  the  factory  salesmen  and  one  elected 
by  the  cheese-buyers.  These  two  members  elect  a  third 
and  these  three  constitute  the  price  committee.  This 
committee  meets  each  week  and  determines  what  the 
price  shall  be.  This  is  known  as  the  ruling.  The 
factory  salesmen  and  cheese-buyers  then  try  to  make 
private  sales.  By  this  method  no  one,  except  the  persons 
concerned,  knows  exactly  what  price  is  paid  for  the  cheese. 
Usually,  a  price  above  the  ruling  is  paid. 

At  Quebec,  Canada,  there  is  a  cheese-selling  organi- 
zation with  government  assistance.  On  paying  a  certain 
fee,  any  cheese  factory  may  join.  All  the  factories 
belonging  to  the  organization  ship  their  cheese  to  a 
central  cold  storage  where  the  cheeses  are  examined  and 
graded  by  a  government  inspector.  A  cheese  from 
each  vat  is  tried.  These  cheeses  are  separated  into 
white  and  colored  lots,  then  graded  according  to  quality. 
When  the  total  number  of  cheeses  in  each  lot  is  known, 
the  lots  are  sold  at  auction.  The  purchaser  must  accept 
the  cheese  as  graded.  The  better  grades  of  cheese  bring 


MARKETING  351 

about  the  same  price  as  on  the  market,  but  the  advan- 
tage lies  in  the  selling  of  the  lower  grades.  Ordi- 
narily, the  purchaser  takes  advantage  of  the  salesman 
when  the  cheeses  are  undergrade.  The  success  of  this 
plan  depends  on  the  accuracy  of  the  person  grading  the 
cheese.  This  method  seems  to  be  growing  in  popularity, 
because  the  cheese-buyer  can  purchase  large  amounts  of 
cheese  at  one  time  and  be  sure  of  the  quality.  A  small 
fee,  about  one-twelfth  of  a  cent  a  pound,  is  charged  for 
handling  the  cheese.  Similar  organizations  are  in  opera- 
tion in  Wisconsin.  The  boards  of  trade  and  selling 
organizations  deal  almost  entirely  in  Cheddar  cheese. 

329.  Mercantile  exchanges.  —  In  the  larger  cities 
are  exchanges  where  cheese  is  bought  and  sold  by 
jobbers.  This  cheese  is  mostly  Cheddar.  The  prices 
paid  these  jobbers  tend  to  fix  the  daily  price  of  cheese. 
These  prices  are  published  daily,  for  example,  in  New  York 
Price  Current.  Some  factories  ship  their  cheese  directly  to 
these  jobbers.  The  following  are  the  cheese  rules  of  the 
New  York  Mercantile  Exchange  adopted  May  4,  1915 : 


CHEESE  RULES  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  MERCANTILE 
EXCHANGE 

Rule  1.  At  the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  Executive  'Com- 
mittee in  each  year,  the  President  shall  appoint,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Executive  Committee,  a  Cheese  Committee  to 
consist  of  seven  members  of  the  Exchange,  who  are  known  as 
members  of  the  cheese  trade,  to  hold  office  until  their  successors 
are  appointed.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Cheese  Committee 
to  formulate  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  government  of  transactions  between  members  of  the  Ex- 
change, and  to  revise  the  same  as  circumstances  may  require. 
Such  rules  and  revisions  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Executive  Committee. 


352  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Rule  2.  All  transactions  in  cheese  between  members  of  the 
Exchange  shall  be  governed  by  the  following  rules,  but  nothing 
therein  shall  be  construed  as  interfering,  in  any  way,  with  the 
rights  of  members  to  make  such  special  contracts  or  conditions 
as  they  may  desire. 

Rule  3.  If  a  sale  is  made  from  dock,  or  platform,  or  to  arrive, 
the  buyer  shall  assume  the  same  relations  toward  the  transpor- 
tation line  by  which  the  cheese  arrives,  as  the  seller  previously 
held  as  regards  its  removal  from  the  place  of  delivery  within 
the  time  granted  by  such  lines  for  that  purpose.  Transactions 
between  members  of  this  Exchange  shall  be  governed  as  follows : 
Any  member  negotiating  for  any  lot  of  cheese  belonging  to  an- 
other member,  the  price  having  been  agreed  upon,  shall  examine 
such  lot  of  cheese  within  twenty-four  (24)  hours  after  such  nego- 
tiation takes  place.  Failure  to  examine  within  said  time  releases 
the  seller  from  any  obligations  to  make  delivery  thereafter,  if  he 
so  wishes. 

Rule  4.  In  the  absence  of  special  agreement,  all  cheese  pur- 
chased "  in  store  "  shall  be  understood  as  being  ready  and  de- 
signed for  immediate  delivery,  but  the  buyer  shall  have  twenty- 
four  hours  in  which  to  have  the  cheese  inspected,  and  weight 
tested,  and  shall  not  be  liable  for  the  storage  and  insurance,  if 
removed  within  two  days. 

Rule  5.  When  cheese  are  sold  to  arrive,  or  from  depot  or 
dock,  the  cheese  must  be  accepted  or  rejected  within  six  business, 
hours  after  notice  of  actual  arrival  to  buyer.  Business  hours 
shall  be  understood  to  be  from  10  A.M.  to  4  P.M.  If  buyer  rejects 
the  same,  he  shall  state  the  reasons  for  rejection.  Should  the 
rejection  be  considered  unfair,  the  seller  shall  at  once  notify  the 
buyer  that  he  declines  to  accept  such  rejection  ;  and  he  may  call 
for  a  Committee,  which  shall  be  composed  of  three  members  of 
the  cheese  trade ;  the  seller  choosing  one,  the  buyer  one,  and 
the  third  selected  from  the  cheese  trade  by  these  two,  or,  they 
failing  to  agree,  the  third  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Cheese.  The  Examining  Committee  shall 
at  once  inspect  the  lot  of  cheese  in  dispute,  sampling  not  less  than 
five  (5)  per  cent  of  each  mark  or  factory,  and  they  shall  imme- 
diately give  their  decision  in  writing  to  both  parties.  Either  party 
failing  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  the  Committee  may  be  summoned 
by  the  other  party  before  the  Complaint  Committee  under  Section 


MARKETING  353 

24  of  the  By-laws.  The  fees  for  each  examination  shall  be  six  ($6) 
dollars,  to  be  paid  by  the  party  adjudged  to  be  in  fault. 

Rule  6.  The  weight  of  all  cheese  shall  be  tested  by  a  regularly 
appointed  official  weigher,  and  his  certificates  shall  accompany 
the  document  conveying  the  title  of  the  property.  Said  official 
weigher  to  be  appointed  by  the  Committee  on  Cheese,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

Rule  7.  The  weigher's  fee  shall  be  twenty-five  (25)  cents  per 
factory  except  where  the  owner  requires  more  than  ten  (10) 
boxes  be  tested  in  which  case  the  fee  shall  be  fifty  (50)  cents, 
which  shall  be  paid  by  the  seller. 

Rule  8.  Unless  otherwise  agreed  upon  in  testing  the  weight 
of  cheese,  not  less  than  five  (5)  boxes  or  more  than  ten  (10)  per 
cent  of  the  whole  lot  shall  be  a  test,  and  said  test  shall  be  con- 
sidered good  for  three  (3)  business  days,  including  day  test  is  made. 

Rule  9.  In  testing  weights,  all  over  and  short  weights  shall 
be  taken  into  the  average  on  each  particular  factory.  Single 
Daisies  shall  be  tested  on  half  pounds,  Double  Daisies  and  all 
other  sizes  on  even  pounds. 

Rule  10.  Where  a  lot  of  cheese  is  found  to  test  irregular  in 
weights,  either  the  buyer  or  seller  may  require  the  entire  lot  to  be 
reweighed.  The  charge  for  same  shall  be  three  (3)  cents  per  box. 

Rule  11.  Boxes  of  cheese  which  may  be  found  largely  at 
variance  from  original  weights  shall  not  enter  into  the  average, 
but  their  weight  shall  be  separately  ascertained  and  certified 
to  by  the  weigher. 

Rule  12.  Where  sales  are  made,  and  the  buyer  finds  damaged 
or  sour  cheese  in  excess  of  fifteen  (15)  per  cent  it  shall  be  optional 
with  him  to  refuse  or  receive  the  remainder  of  the  lot  purchased. 
But,  in  the  event  of  his  accepting  the  remainder  of  the  lot,  the 
sour  or  damaged  cheese  shall  revert  to  the  seller. 

Rule  13.  The  Committee  on  Cheese  shall  appoint  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Executive  Committee,  a  Cheese  Inspector 
and  also  a  Deputy  Inspector,  whose  duties  shall  be,  when  called 
upon  by  members  of  the  Exchange,  to  inspect  the  quality  and 
condition  of  such  lots  of  cheese  as  may  be  required  and  to  render 
a  certificate  of  such  inspection.  Where  the  cheese  in  the  lots 
are  reasonably  uniform  in  quality,  the  examination  of  10  per 
cent  of  the  lot  shall  be  considered  sufficient,  but  this  shall  not 
prevent  the  Inspector  examining  a  larger  percentage  of  the  lot, 

2A 


354  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

when  he  deems  it  necessary.  The  fee  for  inspection  shall  be 
fifty  (50)  cents  for  lots  consisting  of  fifty  (50)  boxes  or  less. 
Lots  exceeding  fifty  (50)  boxes  shall  be  one  cent  per  box,  which 
shall  be  collected  from  the  member  ordering  the  inspection. 

Rule  14.  The  Cheese  Inspector's  certificate  shall  be  made 
to  read  as  follows : 

NEW  YORK  MERCANTILE  EXCHANGE 

Cheese  Inspector's  Certificate 

Inspection  No 

This  is  to  certify  that  I  have  this  day  inspected  for  M 

the  following  cheese,  now  located  at... 

Factory  and  identification  marks..... 

Quantity  in  lot ..boxes 

Quantity  inspected _ boxes 

and  find  as  follows : 

Flavor 

Body  and  Texture 

Color _ 

Condition 

Boxes 

Grade 

Inspection  charges 

Inspector 

The  certificate  to  have  a  blank  margin  of  three  inches  at  the 
bottom,  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  specifications  of  Institu- 
tions, also  for  cheese  sold  under  the  Call,  so  that  the  Inspector 
may  certify  that  cheese  inspected  fill  the  requirements  as  specified 

NEW  YORK  MERCANTILE  EXCHANGE 

OFFICIAL  INSPECTION 
Number....  Dtito..... 


Inspector 

and  the  Inspector  shall  brand  one  impression  on  both  boxes 
and  cheese. 

Rule  16.     The  Weigher's  Certificate  shall  be  made  to  read  as 
follows : 


MARKETING  355 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  following  is  the  actual  test  of 

boxes,  out  of  shipment    of boxes 

Factory  Mark 

Marked  Weights : 

Actual  Weights 

Loss -. 

Average  loss Ibs.  on boxes 

New  York 19...... 

Weigher 

and  the  Cheese  Rules  numbered  6  to  11  inclusive  be  printed  on 
the  back  thereof. 

Rule  17.  Members  offering  cheese  for  sale  under  the  Call 
shall  describe  each  lot,  as  to  number  of  boxes,  color,  texture 
(open  or  close  made),  body,  flavor,  size,  and  how  boxed,  section 
where  made,  whether  whole  milks  or  skims  and  the  average 
weight  of  each  lot.  Cheese  sold  under  the  Call  to  be  accepted, 
or  rejected,  as  a  good  delivery,  or  otherwise,  based  on  the  descrip- 
tion given  at  the  sale. 

Rule  18.  When  cheese  are  sold  under  the  Call,  unless  other- 
wise stated,  they  shall  be  ready  for  immediate  shipment. 

Rule  19.  All  cheese  offered  under  the  Call,  with  Inspector's 
Certificate  attached,  shall  be  accompanied  by  such  Certificate 
and  be  accepted  by  the  buyer  unconditionally,  provided  the 
cheese  are  branded  according  to  Rule  13. 

Rule  20.  When  cheese  are  offered  under  the  Call,  without 
Inspector's  Certificate,  should  the  buyer  not  consider  the  cheese 
a  good  delivery,  according  to  description  by  seller,  he  may  notify 
the  seller,  and  if  the  seller  is  unwilling  to  make  another  delivery, 
the  buyer  may  call  upon  the  Inspector  to  decide  whether  or  not 
the  delivery  shall  stand.  If  the  Inspector  decides  it  is  a  good 
delivery,  the  buyer  shall  accept  the  cheese.  If  the  Inspector 
decides  it  is  not  a  good  delivery,  then  the  seller  shall  have  twenty- 
four  (24)  hours  in  which  to  make  a  good  delivery.  But  if  the 
seller,  after  twenty-four  (24)  hours,  fails  to  make  a  good  de- 
livery, then  the  buyer  shall  notify  the  Superintendent  of  the 
Exchange,  who  shall  collect  a  penalty  of  three  per  cent  of  the 
amount  of  the  transaction,  the  Exchange  retaining  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  this  sum,  and  seventy-five  per  cent  shall  be  paid  to 
the  buyer. 


356 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


Rule  21.  Spot  sales  under  the  Call  shall  be  for  spot  cash  un- 
less otherwise  agreed. 

Rule  22.  All  failures  in  meeting  contracts  shall  be  reported 
to  the  Superintendent  of  the  Exchange,  and  announced  at  next 
regular  session  of  the  Exchange. 

330.  Marketing  perishable  varieties.  —  Soft  cheeses, 
such  as  Cream,  Neufchatel,  Cottage,  are  usually  sold 
to  jobbers  or  directly  to  retail  stores.  They  have  a 
very  short  commercial  life,  hence  cannot  be  held  long 
before  delivery  to  the  consumer.  From  the  jobber, 
cheese  usually  goes  to  the  wholesale  grocer  and  then  to 


FIG.  74.  —  A  cheese  cold  storage  room. 

the  retail  dealer  and  finally  the  consumer.  Most  job- 
bers have  cold  storages  so  that  they  can  hold  cheese 
without  injury  to  quality.  (See  Fig.  74.)  The  kind  of 
cheese  marketed  in  any  locality  depends  on  the  tastes 
of  the  residents.  For  example,  the  South  usually  desires 
a  highly  colored  product,  thinking  this  color  indicates 
more  fat;  in  the  Cheddar  group  New  England  de- 


MARKETING  357 

mands  a  soft  pasty  quick-curing  cheese,  thinking  that 
softness  is  a  sign  of  more  fat  and  richness;  England 
wants  a  rather  dry,  well-cured,  highly  flavored  cheese. 
Canadian  Cheddar  cheese  has  been  standardized  as 
far  as  possible  to  appeal  to  the  English  market.  A  long 
ripening  period  keeps  capital  tied  up  through  the 
further  time  required  for  delivery.  This  has  led  to  the 
sale  of  much  of  the  cheese  almost  or  entirely  unripe.  So 
much  of  the  product  has  reached  the  consumer  without 
characteristic  varietal  flavor  that  large  numbers  have 
acquired  the  habit  of  purchasing  and  even  preferring 
cheese  only  partly  ripe. 

The  time  during  which  cheese  should  be  held  at  the 
factory  depends  on  the  variety.  Some  are  shipped  as 
soon  as  made,  including  those  cheeses  with  sour-milk 
flavor  only.  Others  have  to  be  cured  in  the  factory  from 
six  to  eight  weeks.  Cheeses  in  paper  or  tin-foil  should 
be  neatly  wrapped  and  carefully  put  in  the  boxes.  The 
box  of  cheese  should  be  neat,  clean  and  attractive. 
Cheeses  not  wrapped  should  have  a  firm  rind  to  hold 
£hem  in  shape.  The  boxes  should  be  clean  and  the 
weight  of  cheese  neatly  and  plainly  marked.  In  the 
case  of  Cheddar  cheese,  it  may  be  paraffined  at  the 
factory,  but  if  not,  this  is  usually  done  at  the  cold 
storage  of  the  jobber.  The  cheeses  usually  have  some 
time  to  cure  or  ripen  while  being  handled  by  the  various 
dealers.  /  . 

331.  Distribution  of  price.  —  The  final  selling  price  of 
cheese  is  a  composite  of  all  the  changes  that  have  gone 
before ;  or  conversely,  the  farmer,  the  maker,  the  carrier 
and  the  distributors  (wholesale,  jobbing  and  retail  deal- 
ers) must  all  be  paid  from  the  final  price  of  the  product. 
A  study  of  this  problem  in  Wisconsin  has  been  made 


358  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

by  Hibbard,  and  Hobson.1  The  general  facts  as  deter- 
mined for  Wisconsin  have  fairly  wide  application  to  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  cheese. 

Economic  success  in  handling  cheese  is  dependent 
on  proper  provision  for  the  sale  of  the  product.  Where 
the  output  is  small*  a  personal  market  can  be  created  and 
maintained.  This  eliminates  all  profits  intervening  be- 
tween the  maker  and  the  retailer.  If  the  business  reaches 
a  volume  beyond  the  possibilities  of  direct  sale  to  the 
retailer,  some  selling  organization  is  necessary.  Where 
the  number  of  producers  is  great  and  the  selling  machinery 
is  well  organized,  the  cheese  factory  becomes  a  producer 
of  a  commodity  which  is  turned  over  to  existing  selling 
agencies.  This  condition  is  well  established  for  Cheddar, 
Swiss,  Brick  and  Limburger  cheese.  The  soft  cheeses 
other  than  Limburger  have  thus  far  been  handled  prin- 
cipally by  large  companies,  each  of  which  has  developed 
an  expensive  selling  organization.  A  study  of  the  map 
(Fig.  65)  shows  how  the  cheese  industry  is  localized  in 
particular  sections  of  certain  states.  Individual  factories 
have  maintained  themselves  in  widely  separated  places. 
This  localization  is  due  to  the  geographical  conditions 
which  make  certain  regions  specially  adapted  to  dairy- 
ing, modified  by  the  proximity  to  markets  for  milk  as 
milk.  There  are  many  regions,  however,  well  adapted 
to  cheese  production  in  which  there  is  no  development 
of  the  industry  at  present.  New  developments  are  now 
taking  place  in  the  mountain  areas  of  the  South,  notably 
North  Carolina  and  adjacent  states,  and  in  several  centers 
of  the  western  mountain  states.  Many  other  areas 
should  develop  the  making  of  cheese  in  some  form. 

1  Hibbard,  B.  H.,  and  Asher  Hobson,  Markets  and  prices  of 
Wisconsin  cheese,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  251,  1915. 


MARKETING  359 

The  actual  costs  of  making  and  selling  cheese  were 
found  by  the  Wisconsin  investigators  to  vary  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  (1)  cost  of  making,  1.2  to  1.75  cents; 
(2)  storage,  J  cent  a  pound  a  month,  or  f  to  \  cent  for  the 
season ;  (3)  transportation  to  distant  points,  $.20  to  $2.50 
for  100  pounds  according  to  distance ;  (4)  the  local  dealer, 
about  1  cent  a  pound ;  (5)  the  wholesale  dealer,  2  cents ; 
(6)  the  jobber  or  broker  who  occasionally  intervenes, 
about  \  to  J  cent ;  and  the  retailer,  5.5  to  9  cents.  The 
entire  cost  of  selling  at  the  time  this  investigation  was 
made  represented  about  one-half  of  the  retail  price  of 
the  cheese.  The  producer  of  milk  received  the  other 
half  of  that  price. 

332.  Standards.  —  Legal  standards  in  the  United 
States  are  thus  far  largely  based  on  the  specifications  of 
American  Cheddar.  In  so  far  as  they  are  applied  to  other 
products,  they  operate  merely  to  prevent  or  reduce  the 
use  of  skimmed-milk.  The  analyses  and  limits  pro- 
posed in  the  discussion  of  varieties  or  groups  in  this 
book  represent  the  range  of  composition  actually  known 
to  be  associated  with  cheeses  of  typical  quality.  Efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  establish  definitions  and  standards 
of  composition  which  will  limit  the  use  of  cheese  names 
to  products  conforming  to  the  requirements  for  such 
varieties.  Practically  the  only  federal  requirement  thus 
far  enforced  in  the  United  States  is  that  50  per  cent  of 
the  water-free  substance  of  the  cheese  must  be  milk-fat. 
Various  states  have  local  requirements  but  most  of 
them  include  the  federal  rule  as  to  fat.  New  York 
and  Wisconsin  now  restrict  the  amount  of  water  in 
Cheddar  cheese  to  40  per  cent.  Most  states  have 
laws  regulating  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  skimmed- 
milk  cheese. 


360  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

333.  Laws  relating  to  cheese  marketing.  —  A  cheese 
of  foreign  origin  if  made  in  this  country  must  be  branded 
to  show  that  it  is  not  imported.  For  example,  Camem- 
bert  made  in  America  is  labeled  Domestic  Camembert. 
Some  manufacturers  call  it  Camembert  type  of  cheese. 
The  same  applies  to  other  varieties  of  foreign  cheese.  If 
a  variety  is  made  under  a  trade-marked  name,  this 
prevents  any  other  manufacturer  from  using  that  name. 
For  example,  a  concern  may  make  "  Philadelphia " 
cream  cheese;  other  concerns  may  make  cream  cheese, 
but  they  must  call  it  by  some  other  name. 

The  committee  on  definitions  and  standards  for  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  has  now  un- 
dertaken to  define  the  proper  use  of  type  names.  This  is 
intended  to  determine  the  proper  limits  of  composition  of 
cheeses  in  each  variety  and  such  essentials  of  physical 
identification  as  will  insure  the  proper  use  of  these  names. 

Certain  states  have  laws  which  relate  to  the  branding  of 
the  cheese  to  denote  quality.  If  the  cheese  is  made  from 
whole  milk,  a  brand  may  be  applied  to  show  this  fact. 
This  is  usually  called  the  state  brand.  If  made  from 
skimmed-milk,  the  cheese  must  be  branded  to  show  this. 
The  following 1  illustrate  the  laws  relating  to  the  state 
brand  and  skimmed-milk  cheese  : 

Sec.  48.  Manufacturer's  brand  of  cheese.  "  Every  manu- 
facturer of  whole-milk  cheese  may  put  a  brand  or  label  upon 
such  cheese  indicating  '  whole-milk  cheese  '  and  the  date  of 
the  month  and  year  when  made ;  and  no  person  shall  use  such 
a  brand  or  label  upon  any  cheese  made  from  milk  from  which 
any  of  the  cream  has  been  taken.  The  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture shall  procure  and  issue  to  the  cheese  manufacturers  of 
the  state,  on  proper  application  therefor,  and  under  such  regu- 
lations as  to  the  custody  and  use  thereof  as  he  may  prescribe, 

1  N.  Y.  Agricultural  Laws,  Sect.  3,  paragraphs  48  and  49. 


MARKETING  361 

a  uniform  stencil  brand  or  labels  bearing  a  suitable  device  or 
motto,  and  the  words  '  New  York  state  whole-milk  cheese.' 
Every  such  brand  or  label  shall  be  used  upon  the  outside  of  the 
cheese  and  shall  bear  a  different  number  for  each  separate  fac- 
tory. The  commissioner  shall  keep  a  book,  in  which  shall  be 
registered  the  name,  location  and  number  of  each  manufactory 
using  the  brands  or  labels,  and  the  name  or  names  of  the  persons 
at  each  manufactory  authorized  to  use  the  same.  No  such 
brand  or  labels  shall  be  used  upon  any  other  than  whole-milk 
cheese  or  packages  containing  the  same.  (As  amended  by  chap- 
ter 207  of  the  Laws  of  1910.) 

Sec.  49.  Use  of  false  brand  prohibited ;  branding  of  skim- 
milk  cheese  regulated.  No  person  shall  offer,  sell  or  expose  for 
sale,  in  any  package,  butter  or  cheese  which  is  falsely  branded 
or  labeled.  No  person  shall  sell,  offer  or  expose  for  sale  cheese 
commonly  known  as  Cheddar  cheese  made  from  skimmed  or 
partially  skimmed  milk  unless  the  same  is  branded  to  show  that 
it  is  skim-milk  cheese.  All  such  cheese  so  sold,  offered  or  ex- 
posed for  sale  shall  be  branded  with  the  words  '  skim-milk 
cheese,'  or  if  such  cheese  contains  thirteen  per  centum  of  milk 
fat  or  over,  it  may  be  branded  '  medium  skim-milk  cheese,' 
or  if  it  contains  eighteen  per  centum  of  milk  fat  or  over,  it  may 
be  branded  '  special  skim-milk  cheese.'  Such  branding  shall  be 
upon  the  sides  of  both  the  cheese  and  the  container.  The  branding 
herein  provided  shall  be  in  block  letters  at  least  one-half  an  inch 
square.  (As  amended  by  chapter  456  of  the  Laws  of  1913.)'* 

Filled  cheeses  are  those  from  which  the  milk-fat  has 
been  removed  and  other  animal  fats  substituted.  The  laws 
of  some  states  prohibit  the  manufacture  of  this  product. 
The  federal  law  relating  to  filled  cheese  permits  its  manu- 
facture under  license,  taxes  and  government  inspection. 

The  various  states  have  laws  regulating  the  length  of 
time  that  the  cheese  may  be  held  in  cold  storage. 

Another  important  law  in  some  states  requires  the 
cheese-maker  to  have  a  license.  He  must  pass  an 
examination  to  show  that  the  principles  and  practices 
of  cheese-making  are  understood. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
CHEESE  IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD 

ALTHOUGH  cheese  in  some  form  is  familiar  to  every 
household,  it  has  been  widely  regarded  in  America  as 
an  accessory,  almost  a  condimental  substance  rather  than 
as  a  staple  food  worthy  of  comparison  with  meat  or  eggs. 
Statistics  of  the  annual  production,  importation  and  ex- 
portation of  cheese  indicate  that  the  total  consumption 
in  the  United  States  is  about  300,000,000  pounds  —  per- 
haps three  pounds  per  capita.  The  household  manu- 
facture and  consumption  of  cottage  cheese  would  add  a 
small  amount  to  these  figures. 

Cheese  is  used  as  a  staple  source  of  food  values  among 
many  peoples  of  Europe.  Such  use  of  cheese  increases 
rather  than  decreases  with  the  density  of  the  population. 
France  with  a  small  fraction  of  the  land  area  and  one-half 
the  population  of  the  United  States  produces  and  con- 
sumes about  the  same  amount  of  cheese.  In  America, 
cheese-making  has  been  developed  with  the  advance  of 
settlement  into  unoccupied  territories  only  to  be  dropped 
as  increasing  population  produced  greater  demands  for 
milk  in  other  forms.  If  cheese  had  been  accepted  as  a 
regular  part  of  the  food  supply  in  such  communities, 
some  form  of  cheese-making  would '  have  survived  the 
economic  changes. 

334.  Food  value  of  cheese.  —  A  consideration  of  the 
nutritive  components  of  cheese  shows  it  to  be  a  rich 

362 


CHEESE   IN    THE   HOUSEHOLD  363 

source  of  fat,  protein  or  both,  according  to  the  variety 
under  examination.  It  is  low  in  carbohydrates,  and 
aside  from  salt  (sodium  chloride)  -compares  favorably 
with  other  substances  in  mineral  constituents.  The 
following  discussion  with  an  amplified  table  is  taken  from 
Langworthy  and  Hunt : 1 

"  In  order,  however,  that  the  question  of  the  use  of 
cheese  in  the  diet  may  be  adequately  discussed,  knowl- 
edge of  its  composition  in  comparison  with  other  foods 
is  desirable,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  data  available 
on  this  subject,  since  the  composition  of  cheese  and  other 
foods  has  often  been  investigated  at  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  in  experiment  station  laboratories  and  in 
many  other  places  where  nutrition  problems  are  studied. 
An  extended  summary  of  analyses  of  cheese  of  different 
sorts  is  included  in  an  earlier  publication  of  this  depart- 
ment.2 

"  Data  regarding  the  composition  of  cheese  and  a  few 
other  common  foods  are  summarized  in  the  following  table. 

"  It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  (Table  XXX)  that  cheese 
has  nearly  twice  as  much  protein,  weight  for  weight,  as  beef 
of  average  composition  as  purchased  and  that  its  fuel  value 
is  more  than  twice  as  great.  It  contains  over  25  per  cent 
more  protein  than  the  same  weight  of  porterhouse  steak 
as  purchased,  and  nearly  twice  as  much  fat. 

"  As  shown  by  the  figures  in  the  following  table,  cheese 
contains  3.8  per  cent  ash.  Of  this  a  considerable  part 
may  be  salt  added  in  cheese-making.  Like  the  milk 
from  which  it  is  made,  cheese  ash  is  characterized  chiefly 

1  Langworthy,  C.  F.,  and  C.  L.  Hunt,  Cheese  and  its  eco- 
nomical uses  in  the  diet,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  487, 1912. 

2  See  also,  Reich,  R.,  Cheese  as  a  food  and  its  judgment  from 
standpoint  of  the  food  chemist,  Arch.  f.  Hyg.  80  (1913),  no.  1/6, 
pages  169-195. 


364 


THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 


9  oS 

K   « a 

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^  °§ 

?i   is 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       365 

by  the  presence  of  calcium  (lime),  magnesium,  phosphorus 
and  iron,  the  average  values  as  given  in  earlier  bulletins 
of  the  department :  being  1.24  per  cent  calcium  oxid, 
0.049  per  cent  magnesium  oxid,  1.49  per  cent  phosphorus 
pentoxid,  and  0.0015  per  cent  iron." 

It  is  clear  from  the  calculations  shown  in  the  last  column, 
that  Cheddar  cheese  takes  first  rank  among  the  foods 
compared  as  to  fuel  value.  The  estimate  of  food  values 
in  terms  of  calories  may  not  completely  express  the  value 
of  that  food  to  a  particular  individual.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  one  great  function  of  food  is  the  production 
of  energy  and  this  function  is  probably  more  closely 
determined  by  the  number  of  calories  produced  than  in 
any  other  known  way.  Such  calculation  has  become  an 
essential  factor  in  the  preparation  of  dietaries.  The 
calculation  here  given  necessarily  applies  only  to  Cheddar 
cheese.  By  easy  use  of  the  last  column,  the  caloric  value 
of  this  cheese  can  be  compared  with  that  of  any  competing 
food  and  the  relative  economy  determined,  whatever  the 
price  asked.  Another  recent  calculation  with  reference  2 
to  the  same  cheese  follows : 

"  One  pound  of  American  Cheddar  cheese  contains  as 
much  protein  as  — 

1.57  pounds  of  sirloin  steak. 
1.35  pounds  of  round  steak. 
1.89  pounds  of  fowl. 
1.79  pounds  of  smoked  ham. 
1.81  pounds  of  fresh  ham. 

"  In  order  to  judge  the  value  of  foods  fairly  not  only  the 
protein  but  the  energy  also  must  be  compared.  To  supply 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  and  H.  W.  Lawson,  Varieties  of  cheese,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  146. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.,  Dairy  Div.  A.  I.  21,  1917. 


366  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

energy  cheese  is  one  of  the  best  of  food  products.     On  the 
basis  of  energy  supplied,  1  pound  of  cheese  equals-  — 

1.98  pounds  of  sirloin  steak. 
2.61  pounds  of  round  steak. 
2.52  pounds  of  fowl. 
1.17  pounds  of  smoked  ham. 
1.29  pounds  of  fresh  ham." 

All  these  discussions  have  applied  to  whole-milk  Ched- 
dar cheese.  With  minor  reductions,  much  the  same  fig- 
ures will  hold  for  Swiss,  Limburger,  Brick,  Munster, 
Edam. 

On  the  other  hand,  very  little  has  been  published  until 
recently  on  the  skimmed-milk  cheeses.  The  food  value  lost 
in  skimmed-milk  has  at  times  been  enormous.  Many 
households  purchase  milk  by  the  bottle,  use  the  top-milk 
as  cream  and  lose  a  part  of  the  remainder.  Similarly 
creameries  have  wasted  tons  of  skimmed-milk.  The  re- 
covery of  the  protein  of  this  milk  for  human  food  is  both 
good  economy  and  an  important  addition  to  the  dietary. 
The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  recently 
published  the  following :  "  Cottage  cheese  is  richer  in 
protein  than  most  meats  and  is  very  much  cheaper. 
Every  pound  contains  more  than  three  ounces  of  protein, 
the  source  of  nitrogen  for  body  building.  It  is  a  valuable 
source  of  energy  also,  though  not  so  high  as  foods  with 
more  fat.  It  follows  that  its  value  in  this  respect  can 
be  greatly  increased  by  serving  it  with  cream,  as  is  so 
commonly  done." 

It  is  an  open  question  whether  the  decline  of  cheese- 
making  in  America  is  not  due  to  our  failure  to  develop 
the  use  of  skim  and  part-skim  cheeses.  The  whole-milk 
cheeses  are  very  rich  in  fat.  Use  of  such  cheese  in  quan- 
tity in  connection  with  ordinary  foods  quickly  leads  to  the 


CHEESE   IN    THE   HOUSEHOLD  367 

ingestion  of  too  much  fat.  The  skimmed-milk  cheeses  are 
primarily  protein  food  and  as  such  substitutes  for  lean  meat. 

"  The  following  table  shows  that  cottage  cheese  is  much 
cheaper  than  most  meats  in  furnishing  protein  for  the  diet. 

"  For  supplying  protein,  one  pound  of  cottage  cheese 
equals : 

.27  pounds  sirloin  steak. 

.09  pounds  round  steak. 

.37  pounds  chuck  rib  beef. 
!  .52  pounds  fowl. 

.46  pounds  fresh  ham. 
!  .44  pounds  smoked  ham. 
1.58  pounds  loin  pork  chop. 
1.31  pounds  hind  leg  of  lamb. 
1.37  pounds  breast  of  veal. 

"  In  addition  to  protein,  energy  for.  performing  body 
work  must  be  furnished  by  food.  As  a  source  of  energy 
also,  cottage  cheese  is  cheaper  than  most  meats  at  present 
prices.  The  following  table  shows  the  comparison  when 
energy  is  considered. 

"  On  the  basis  of  energy  supplied,  one  pound  of  cottage 
cheese  equals  : 

8^  ounces  sirloin  steak. 
Ill  ounces  round  steak. 
11£  ounces  chuck  rib  beef. 
lOf  ounces  fowl. 

5|  ounces  fresh  ham. 

5  ounces  smoked  ham. 

6  ounces  loin  pork  chop. 
7^  ounces  hind  leg  of  lamb. 

12|  ounces  breast  of  veal.'! 

335.  Digestibility  of  cheese.  —  Although  it  has  been 
a  staple  food  with  many  races  for  uncounted  years,  there 
is  a  widespread  belief  that  cheese  is  suitable  for  use  chiefly 


368  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

in  small  quantities  as  an  accessory  to  the  diet,  and  that 
in  large  quantities  it  is  likely  to  produce  physiological 
disturbances.  The  question  of  digestibility  was  made 
the  subject  of  a  special  investigation  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.1  Calorimeter  experiments2 
were  made  to  test  the  digestibility  of  several  varieties  of 
cheese  and  some  of  these  varieties  at  various  stages  of 
ripening.  All  forms  of  cheese  were  found  to  be  digested 
as  completely  as  most  of  the  usual  forms  of  food.  Ap- 
proximately 90  per  cent  of  the  nitrogenous  portion  (casein) 
was  retained  in  the  body.  Unripe  cheese  in  these  experi- 
ments was  apparently  digested  as  completely  as  the  ripened 
forms.  These  experiments  make  clear  the  possibility 
of  making  cheese  a  more  prominent  article  in  the  regular 
dietary  than  is  usual  in  America.  They  especially  point  to 
the  desirability  of  the  use  of  the  skim  and  partially  skim 
cheeses,  which  as  cheap  sources  of  protein  when  properly 
combined  with  other  foods,  may  be  made  to  replace 
meats  as  a  less  costly  source  of  proteins.  Cheese  is  then 
to  be  classed  with  meat  and  eggs,  not  with  condiments. 
An  ounce  of  Cheddar3  cheese  roughly  is  equivalent  to 
one  egg,  to  a  glass  of  milk,  or  to  two  ounces  of  meat. 
It  is  properly  to  be  combined  with  bread,  potatoes  and 
other  starchy  foods,  lacking  in  the  fat  in  which  the  cheese 
is  rich.  These  experiments  included  Roquefort,  fresh-made 
and  ripe  Cheddar,  Swiss,  Camembert  and  Cottage  cheese. 
336.  Cheese  flavor.  —  "  Cheese  owes  its  flavor  to  the 
fatty  acids  and  their  compounds  which  it  contains  and 
to  ammonia-like  bodies  formed  during  ripening  from  the 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  et  al,  The  digestibility  of  cheese,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Circ.  166,  pages  1-21,  1911. 

2  Langworthy  and  Hunt,  loc.  cit. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  487,  page  38. 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       369 

cleavage  of  the  casein,  to  salt  added  to  the  curd,  and  in 
some  varieties,  like  Roquefort,  to  bodies  elaborated  by 
molds  which  develop  in  the  cheese.  In  the  highly  flavored 
sorts  some  of  the  fatty  acids  of  a  very  marked  odor  are 
present  in  abundance,  as  are  also  the  ammonia-like 
bodies.  Indeed,  in  eating  such  cheese  as  Camembert  a 
trace  of  ammonia  flavor  may  often  be  plainly  detected. 

"  The  cleavage  of  the  nitrogenous  material  of  the  cheese 
and  other  changes  are  brought  about  chiefly  by  the  action 
of  enzymes  originally  present  in  cheese  or  by  micro-or- 
ganisms and  are  to  be  regarded  as  fermentative  and  not 
as  putrefactive  changes. 

"  The  liking  for  highly  flavored  cheeses  of  strong  odor 
is  a  matter  of  individual  preference,  but  from  the  chemist's 
standpoint  there  is  no  reason  for  the  statement  often 
made  that  such  cheeses  have  undergone  putrefactive 
decomposition." 

337.  Relation  to  health.  —  In  connection  with  the  use 
of  cheese  as  a  food,  its  relation  to  the  health  of  the  con- 
sumer must  be  considered.  The  presence  of  the  bacillus 
of  tuberculosis  in  milk  has  led  to  careful  study  of  its 
possible  presence  in  cheese.  When  American  Cheddar 
cheese  was  specially  inoculated  for  this  purpose,  the 
living  organism  was  recovered  from  it  after  about  five 
months  by  Schroeder  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  This  danger  is  much  greater  from  cheeses, 
such  as  Cream  and  Neufchatel,  which  are  eaten  when  com- 
paratively freshly  made.  The  disease  has  been  produced 
in  guinea  pigs  from  such  cheese  often  enough  to  emphasize 
the  desirability  of  developing  methods  of  making  every 
variety  possible  from  thoroughly  pasteurized  milk.  This 
would  remove  the  danger  of  tuberculosis  and  with  it 
eliminate  the  possibility  of  transmitting  other  diseases. 
2u 


370  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

338.  Cheese  poisoning  1  cases  occasionally  occur.   These 
take  two  main  forms :  (1)  an  enteritis  (caused  by  Bacillus 
enteritidis)  or  some  other  member  of  that  series  which 
while   painful    and    accompanied   by   purging    is    rarely 
fatal ;    (2)  acute  toxaemias  which,  although  rare,  usually 
result  in  death.     From  the  latter  type  a  variety  of  Bacillus 
botulinus,    an    organism    usually    associated    with    meat 
poisoning,  was  isolated  by  the  New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Health.     The  occurrence  of  such  cases  is  frequent 
enough  to  emphasize  the  desirability  of  using  every  pre- 
caution to  reduce  the  number  of  bacteria  that  are  allowed 
to  enter  milk  when  drawn  and  to  prevent  the  development 
of  those  which  actually  gain  access  to  it.     When  possible, 
pasteurization  should  be  introduced. 

339.  Proper  place  in  the  diet.  —  It  has  already  been 
noted  that  cheese  is  used  "  in  general  in  two  ways  —  in 
small  quantities  chiefly  for  its  flavor  and  in  large  quan- 
tities for  its  nutritive  value  as  well  as  for  its  flavor.     Some 
-varieties  of  cheese  are  used  chiefly  for  the  first  purpose, 
others   chiefly   for  the   second.     Those  which   are   used 
chiefly  for  their  flavor,  many  of  which  are  high  priced, 
contribute  little  to  the  food  value  of  the  diet,  because 
of  the  small  quantity  used  at  a  time.     They  have  an 
important  part  to  play,   however,   in  making  the  diet 
attractive    and   palatable.     The    intelligent   housekeeper 
thinks  of  them  not  as  necessities,  but  as  lying  within 
what  has   been   called  '  the  region  of   choice.'     Having 
first  satisfied  herself  that  her  family  is  receiving  sufficient 
nourishment,  she  then,  according  to  her  means  and  ideas 
of  an  attractive  diet,   chooses  among  these  foods   and 
others  which  are  to  be  considered  luxuries. 

1  Levin,  W.,  Cheese  poisoning  —  a  toxicogenic  bacillus  iso- 
lated from  cheese,  Jour.  Lab.  Clin.  Med.  2  (1917),  page  761. 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       371 

"  Those  cheeses,  on  the  other  hand,  which  are  suitable 
to  be  eaten  in  large  quantities  and  which  are  comparatively 
low  priced  are  important  not  only  from  the  point  of  view 
of  flavor,  but  also  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  nutritive 
value."  Among  such  cheeses  are  American  Cheddar, 
Swiss,  Brick,  Limburger  and  the  lower  priced  forms  of 
Neufchatel. 

It  is  clear  that  in  buying  cheese,  the  housekeeper 
should  know  definitely  the  dietary  purpose  of  the  pur- 
chase, and  then  choose  the  variety  of  cheese  best  suited. 
To  a  very  large  degree  the  personal  tastes  of  the  family 
determine  the  kinds  of  cheese  which  will  be  tolerated 
when  served  uncooked.  In  some  families,  the  strong 
flavors  of  Roquefort  or  Limburger  are  not  acceptable. 
However,  there  is  a  range  of  choice  in  which  much  judg- 
ment can  be  used.  Cheese  to  be  served  with  mild-flavored 
foods  should  as  a  rule  be  also  mild-flavored.  For  most 
sandwiches,  for  example,  Cheddar  or  Swiss  is  usually 
very  acceptable;  Brick  or  partly  ripe  Limburger  still 
hard  enough  to  slice  cuts  into  thin  rectangular  slices  and 
is  very  attractive  to  many  consumers  because  it  has  some- 
what more  flavor  without  being  too  strong.  With  proper 
handling  it  is  good  policy  to  buy  the  cheapest  of  these 
forms  for  this  purpose.  The  selection  of  dessert  cheeses 
offers  the  widest  range.  If  served  with  mild-flavored 
crackers,  very  many  persons  prefer  Cream,  Neufchatel  or 
mild  Cheddar ;  a  little  stronger  taste  calls  for  club  cheese, 
or  Camembert.  If  tobacco  smoke  is  present,  Roquefort, 
Gorgonzola,  Limburger  and  related  types  will  satisfy 
many  consumers  better  than  mild  cheeses.  The  inten- 
sity of  flavor  to  be  sought  in  the  cheese  should  thus  be 
adjusted  to  the  food  served  with  it.  A  person  with  an 
aversion  to  strong-smelling  or  strong-tasting  cheese  has 


372  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

been  frequently  known  to  approve  over-ripe  Camembert, 
or  Limburger  when  served  without  label  but  spread  upon 
a  ginger  cracker. 

For  cooking  purposes,  some  recipes  prescribe  cheese 
of  special  quality.  In  large  markets,  old  Cheddar  ripened 
carefully  for  two  or  three  years  is  commonly  purchasable 
for  Welsh  rabbit.  (Ask  for  "rabbit"  cheese.)  An 
expert  housekeeper  familiar  also  with  cheese  ripening  has 
demonstrated  that  almost  any  cheese,  whether  ripened 
to  its  best,  part  ripe  or  over-ripe,  can  be  used  in  many 
cooking  formulas  without  injuring  the  acceptability  of 
the  product  to  most  consumers.  In  canning  Camembert, 
it  has  been  shown  l  that  over-ripe  cheese  so  strong  as  to 
be  objectionable,  when  sterilized  loses  the  objectionable 
flavor  of  the  raw  product.  No  cheese  should  be  wasted ; 
any  not  used  when  served  the  first  time  should  be  served 
at  a  closely  following  meal  or  used  in  cooking.  No 
matter  what  the  variety,  it  will  add  to  the  food  value  and 
palatability  of  spme  one  of  the  common  dishes  served 
within  forty-eight  hours. 

340.  Care  of  cheese.2  —  "  One  of  the  best  ways  of 
keeping  cheese  which  has  been  cut  is  to  wrap  it  in  a 
slightly  damp  cloth  and  then  in  paper,  and  to  keep  it  in 
a  cool  place.  To  dampen  the  cloth,  sprinkle  it  and  then 
wring  it.  It  should  seem  hardly  damp  to  the  touch. 
Paraffin  paper  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  cloth.  When 
cheese  is  put  in  a  covered  dish,  the  air  should  never  be 
wholly  excluded,  for  if  this  is  done,  it  molds  more  readily. 

"In  some  markets  it  is  possible  to  buy  small  whole 
cheeses.  These  may  be  satisfactorily  kept  by  cutting 

1  Thorn,  C.,  Camembert  cheese  problems  in  the  United  States, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  Bui.  115. 

2  Langworthy  and  Hunt,  loc.  cit. 


CHEESE   IN    THE   HOUSEHOLD  373 

a  slice  from  the  top,  to  serve  as  a  cover,  and  removing 
the  cheese  as  needed  with  a  knife,  a  strong  spoon,  or  a 
cheese  scoop.  It  is  possible  to  buy  at  the  hardware 
stores  knobs  which  inserted  in  the  layer  cut  from  the  top 
make  it  easy  to  handle.  The  cheese  with  the  cover  on 
should  be  kept  wrapped  in  a  cloth." 

341.  Food  value  and  price.  —  There  is  little  relation 
between  the  price  and  food  value  of  standard  varieties 
of  cheese.     The  higher-priced  varieties  claim  and  hold 
their  place  because  they  possess  particular  flavors.     These 
may   or   may   not   accompany   high   comparative    food 
values.     Even  among  low-priced  varieties  discrimination 
into  grades  is  largely  based  on  flavor.     Of  the  low-priced 
cheeses,    those    made    from    skimmed-milk    commonly 
command  the  lowest  prices.     As  noted  above,  a  choice 
may  be  based  either  on  purpose  or  on  price.     If    the 
purpose  is  fixed,  the  price  should  not  change  the  selection. 
If,  however,  a  particular  quality  of  cheese  is  purchasable 
at  a  low  price,  some  satisfactory  form  of  utilizing  it  is 
clearly  available  to  the    housekeeper.     Some    standard 
recipes  are  given  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

342.  Methods  and  recipes  for  using  cheese.  —  (1)  As 
a  meat  substitute.     Meat  is  wholesome  and  relished  by 
most  persons,  yet  it  is  not  essential  to  a  well-balanced 
meal  and  there  are  many  housekeepers  who  for  one  reason 
or  another  are  interested  in  lessening  the  amount  of  meat 
or   to   substitute  other   foods.     The    problem  with  the 
average  family  is  undoubtedly  more  often  the  occasional 
substitution  of  other  palatable  dishes  for  the  sake  of  variety, 
for  reasons  of  economy,  or  for  some  other  reason  than  the 
general  replacement  of  meat  dishes  by  other  things. 

Foods  which  are  to  be  served  in  place  of  meat  should 
be  rich  in  protein  and  fat  and  should  also  be  savory. 


374  THE   BOOK  OF   CHEESE 

Cheese  naturally  suggests  itself  as  a  substitute  for  meat, 
since  it  is  rich  in  the  same  kinds  of  nutrients  that  meat 
supplies,  is  a  staple  food  with  which  every  one  is  familiar 
and  is  one  which  can  be  used  in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 
In  substituting  cheese  for  meat,  especial  pains  should 
be  taken  to  serve  dishes  which  are  relished  by  the  members 
of  the  family.  A  number  of  recipes1  for  dishes  which 
contain  cheese  are  given  below.  They  are  preceded  by 
several  recipes  for  cheese  sauces  which,  as  will  appear, 
are  called  for  in  the  preparation  of  some  of  the  more 
substantial  dishes.  In  the  first  list  of  recipes,  cheese 
means  Cheddar. 

Cheese  Sauce  No.  i 

1  cupful  of  milk.  1  ounce  of  cheese  (£  cupful  of 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.  grated  cheese). 

Salt  and  pepper. 

Thicken  the  milk  with  the  flour  and  just  before  serving  add 
the  cheese,  stirring  until  it  is  melted. 

This  sauce  is  suitable  to  use  in  preparing  creamed  eggs,  or  to 
pour  over  toast,  making  a  dish  corresponding  to  ordinary  milk 
toast,  except  for  the  presence  of  cheese.  It  may  be  seasoned 
with  a  little  curry  powder  and  poured  over  hard-boiled  eggs. 

Cheese  Sauce  No.  2 

Same  as  cheese  sauce  No.  1,  except  that  the  cheese  is  in- 
creased from  1  to  2  ounces. 

This  sauce  is  suitable  for  using  with  macaroni  or  rice,  or  for 
baking  with  crackers  soaked  in  milk. 

Cheese  Sauce  No.  3 

Same  as  cheese  sauce  No.  1,  except  that  two  cupfuls  of  grated 
cheese  or  8  ounces  are  used.  This  may  be  used  upon  toast  as  a 
substitute  for  Welsh  rabbit. 

1  Langworthy  and  Hunt,  loc.  cit. 


CHEESE   IN    THE   HOUSEHOLD  375 

Cheese  Sauce  No.  4 

Same  as  cheese  sauce  No.  2,  save  that  2  tablespoonfuls  of 
melted  butter  are  mixed  with  the  flour  before  the  latter  is  put 
into  the  milk.  This  sauce  is  therefore  very  rich  in  fat  and  has 
only  a  mild  flavor  of  cheese. 

Among  the  recipes  for  dishes  which  may  be  used  like 
meat,  the  following  give  products  which,  eaten  in  usual 
quantities,  will  provide  much  the  same  kind  and  amount  of 
nutritive  material  as  the  ordinary  servings  of  meat  dishes 
used  at  dinner.  In  several  cases  there  is  a  resemblance 
in  appearance  and  flavor  to  common  meat  dishes,  which 
would  doubtless  be  a  point  in  their  favor  with  many 
families. 

(2)  For  general  cooking  purposes: 

Cheese  Fondue  No.  i 

1£  cupfuls  of  soft,  stale  bread  crumbs.     4  eggs. 

6  ounces  of  cheese  (1|  cupfuls  of  grated     1  cupful  of  hot  water. 

cheese  or  1^  cupfuls  of  cheese  grated     \  teaspoonful  of  salt. 

fine  or  cut  into  small  pieces). 

Mix  the  water,  bread  crumbs,  salt  and  cheese ;  add  the  yolks 
thoroughly  beaten ;  into  this  mixture  cut  and  fold  the  whites  of 
eggs  beaten  until  stiff.  Pour  into  a  buttered  baking  dish  and 
cook  30  minutes  in  a  moderate  oven.  Serve  at  once. 

The  food  value  of  this  dish,  made  with  the  above  quantities, 
is  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  a  pound  of  beef  of  average 
composition  and  a  pound  of  potatoes  combined.  It  contains 
about  80  grams  of  proteids  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  about  1300 
calories. 

Cheese  Fondue  No.  2 

\\  cupfuls  of  hot  milk.  \  of  a  pound  of  cheese  (\\  cup- 

1^  cupfuls  of  soft,  stale  bread  fuls    of   grated  cheese  or  1 

crumbs.  cupful    of    cheese    cut   into 

1  tablespoonful  of  butter.  small  pieces). 

4  eggs.  \  teaspoonful  of  salt. 


376  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

Prepare  as  in  previous  recipe. 

The  protein  value  of  this  dish  is  equal  to  that  of  1|  pounds  of 
potato  and  beef,  the  fuel  value,  however,  being  much  in  excess 
of  these. 

In  making  either  of  these  fondues,  rice  or  other  cereals  may 
be  substituted  for  bread  crumbs.  One-fourth  cupful  of  rice 
measured  before  cooking,  or  one  cupful  of  cooked  rice  or  other 
cereals,  should  be  used. 

Corn  and  Cheese  Souffle 

1  tablespoonful  of  butter.  1  cupful  of  chopped  corn. 

1  tablespoonful  of  chopped  green     1  cupful  of  grated  cheese, 
pepper.  3  eggs. 

^  cupful  of  flour.  £  teaspoonful  of  salt. 

2  cupfuls  of  milk. 

Melt  the  butter  and  cook  the  pepper  thoroughly  in  it.  Make 
a  sauce  out  of  the  flour,  milk  and  cheese ;  add  the  corn,  cheese, 
yolks  and  seasoning ;  cut  and  fold  in  the  whites  beaten  stiffly ; 
turn  into  a  buttered  baking  dish  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven 
30  minutes. 

Made  with  skimmed-milk  and  without  butter,  this  dish  has 
a  food  value  slightly  in  excess  of  a  pound  of  beef  and  a  pound  of 
potatoes. 

Cheese  Souffle 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  butter.  A  speck  of  cayenne. 

3  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.  J  cupful  of  grated  cheese. 
\  cupful  of  milk  (scalded).             3  eggs. 

\  teaspoonful  of  salt 

Melt  the  butter;  add  the  flour  and,  when  well  mixed,  add 
gradually  the  scalded  milk.  Then  add  salt,  cayenne  and  cheese. 
Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  the  yolks  of  the  eggs,  beaten  until 
lemon  colored.  Cool  the  mixture  and  fold  into  it  the  whites  of 
the  eggs,  beaten  until  stiff.  Pour  into  a  buttered  baking  dish 
and  cook  20  minutes  in  a  slow  oven.  Serve  at  once. 

The  proteid  of  this  recipe  is  equal  to  that  of  half  a  pound 
of  beef;  the  fuel  value  is  equal  to  that  of  three-fourths  of  a 
pound. 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       377 

Welsh  Rabbit 

1  tablespoonful  of  butter.  |  pound  of  cheese,  cut  into  small 

1  teaspoonful  of  corn-starch.  pieces. 

|  cupful  of  milk.  J  teaspoonful  each  of  salt  and 

mustard. 
A  speck  of  cayenne  pepper. 

Cook  the  corn-starch  in  the  butter ;  then  add  the  milk  gradu- 
ally and  cook  two  minutes ;  add  the  cheese  and  stir  until  it  is 
melted.  Season  and  serve  on  crackers  or  bread  toasted  on  one 
side,  the  rabbit  being  poured  over  the  untoasted  side.  Food 
value  is  that  of  about  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  beef. 

Macaroni  and  Cheese  No.  i 

1  cupful  of  macaroni,  broken  into  small     2  tablespoonfuls  of  flour. 

pieces.  j  to  %  pound  of  cheese. 

2  quarts  of  boiling  salted  water.  £  teaspoonful  of  salt. 

1  cupful  of  milk.  Speck  of  cayenne  pepper. 

Cook  the  macaroni  in  the  boiling  salted  water,  drain  in  a 
strainer,  and  pour  cold  water  over  it  to  prevent  the  pieces  from 
adhering  to  each  other.  Make  a  sauce  out  of  the  flour,  milk, 
and  cheese.  Put  the  sauce  and  macaroni  in  alternate  layers  in 
a  buttered  baking  dish,  cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  heat 
in  oven  until  crumbs  are  brown. 

Macaroni  and  Cheese  No.  2 

A  good  way  to  prepare  macaroni  and  cheese  is  to  make  a  rich 
cheese  sauce  and  heat  the  macaroni  in  it.  The  mixture  is  usually 
covered  with  buttered  crumbs  and  browned  in  the  oven.  The 
advantage  of  this  way  of  preparing  the  dish,  however,  is  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  have  a  hot  oven,  as  the  sauce  and  macaroni 
may  be  reheated  on  the  top  of  the  stove. 

Baked  Rice  and  Cheese  No.  i 

1  cupful  of  uncooked  rice  and       2  tablespoonfuls  of  flour. 
4  cupfuls  of  milk ;  f  pound  of  cheese. 

or,  2  teaspoonful  of  salt. 

3  cupfuls  of  cooked  rice  and 
1  cupful  of  milk. 


378  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

If  uncooked  rice  is  used,  it  should  be  cooked  in  3  cupfulsof 
milk.  Make  a  sauce  with  one  cupful  of  milk,  add  the  flour, 
cheese  and  salt.  Into  a  buttered  baking  dish  put  alternate 
layers  of  the  cooked  rice  and  the  sauce.  Cover  with  buttered 
crumbs  and  bake  until  the  crumbs  are  brown.  The  proteids  in 
this  dish,  made  with  rice  cooked  in  milk,  are  equal  to  those  of 
nearly  If  pounds  of  average  beef.  If  skimmed-milk  is  used,  the 
fuel  value  is  equal  to  nearly  3£  pounds  of  beef.  Whole  milk 
raises  the  fuel  value  still  higher. 

Fried  Bread  with  Cheese  No.  i 

6  slices  of  bread.  £  teaspoonful  of  salt. 

1  cupful  of  milk.  \  teaspoonful  of  potassium  bi- 

2  ounces  of  cheese,  or  |  cupful         carbonate. 

of  grated  cheese.  Butter  or  other  fat  for  frying. 

Scald  the  milk  with  the  potassium  bicarbonate;  add  the 
grated  cheese,  and  stir  until  it  dissolves.  Dip  the  bread  in  this 
mixture  and  fry  it  in  the  butter.  The  potassium  bicarbonate 
helps  to  keep  the  cheese  in  solution.  It  is  desirable,  however, 
to  keep  the  milk  hot  while  the  bread  is  being  dipped. 

Plain  Cheese  Salad 

Cut  Edam  or  ordinary  American  cheese  into  thin  pieces, 
scatter  them  over  lettuce  leaves  and  serve  with  French  dressing. 

Olive  and  Pimiento  Sandwich  or  Salad  Cheese 

Mash  any  of  the  soft  cream  cheeses  and  add  chopped  olives 
and  pimientos  in  equal  parts.  This  mixture  requires  much  salt 
to  make  it  palatable  to  most  palates,  the  amount  depending 
chiefly  on  the  quantity  of  pimiento  used.  The  mixture  may  be 
spread  between  thin  slices  of  bread  or  it  may  be  made  into  a 
roll  or  molded,  cut  into  slices  and  served  on  lettuce  leaves 
with  French  dressing. 

Cheese  and  Tomato  Salad 

Stuff  cold  tomatoes  with  cream  cheese  and  serve  on  lettuce 
leaves  with  French  dressing. 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       379 

Cheese  and  Pimiento  Salad 

Stuff  canned  pimientos  with  cream  cheese,  cut  into  slices  and 
serve  one  or  two  slices  to  each  person  on  lettuce  leaves  with 
French  dressing. 

(3)  Ways  to  use  cottage  cheese.  Cottage  cheese  alone 
is  an  appetizing  and  nutritious  dish.  It  may  also  be 
served  with  sweet  or  sour  cream,  and  some  persons  add  a 
little  sugar,  or  chives,  chopped  onion  or  caraway  seed. 

The  following  recipes  l  illustrate  a  number  of  ways  in 
which  cottage  cheese  may  be  served: 

Cottage  Cheese  with  Preserves  and  Jellies 
Pour  over  cottage  cheese  any  fruit  preserves,  such  as  straw- 
berries, figs  or  cherries.  Serve  with  bread  or  crackers.  If  pre- 
ferred, cottage  cheese  balls  may  be  served  separately  and  eaten 
with  the  preserves.  A  very  attractive  dish  may  be  made  by 
dropping  a  bit  of  jelly  into  a  nest  of  the  cottage  cheese. 

Cottage  Cheese  Salad 

Mix  thoroughly  one  pound  of  cheese,  one  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  cream,  one  tablespoonful  of  chopped  parsley  and 
salt  to  taste.  First,  fill  a  rectangular  tin  mold  with  cold  water 
to  chill  and  wet  the  surface ;  line  the  bottom  with  waxed  paper, 
then  pack  in  three  layers  of  the  cheese,  putting  two  or  three 
parallel  strips  of  pimiento,  fresh  or  canned,  between  the  layers. 
Cover  with  waxed  paper  and  set  in  a  cool  place  until  ready  to 
serve ;  then  run  a  knife  around  the  sides  and  invert  the  mold. 
Cut  in  slices  and  serve  on  lettuce  leaves  with  French  dressing 
and  wafers  or  thin  bread-and-butter  sandwiches.  Minced  olives 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  parsley,  and  chopped  nuts  also  may 
be  added. 

Cottage  Cheese  Rolls 

(To  be  used  like  meat  rolls.) 

A  large  variety  of  rolls,  suitable  for  serving  as  the  main  dish 
at  dinner,  may  be  made  by  combining  legumes  (beans  of  various 
kinds,  cowpeas,  lentils  or  peas)  with  cottage  cheese,  and  adding 

1\J.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.  A.  I.  18. 


380  THE   BOOK   OF   CHEESE 

bread  crumbs  to  make  the  mixture  thick  enough  to  form  into 
a  roll.  Beans  are  usually  mashed,  but  peas  or  small  Lima 
beans  may  be  combined  whole  with  bread  crumbs  and  cottage 
cheese,  and  enough  of  the  liquor  in  which  the  vegetables  have 
been  cooked  should  be  added  to  get  the  right  consistency ;  or, 
instead  of  beans  or  peas,  chopped  spinach,  beet  tops  or  head 
lettuce  may  be  added. 

Boston  Roast 

1  pound  can  of  kidney  beans,  or  equivalent  quantity  of  cooked 
beans. 

\  pound  of  cottage  cheese. 

Bread  crumbs. 

Salt. 

Mash  the  beans  or  put  them  through  a  meat  grinder.  Add 
the  cheese  and  bread  crumbs  enough  to  make  the  mixture  suffi- 
ciently stiff  to  be  formed  into  a  roll.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven, 
basting  occasionally  with  butter  or  other  fat,  and  water.  Serve 
with  tomato  sauce.  This  dish  may  be  flavored  with  chopped 
onions  cooked  until  tender  in  butter  or  other  fat  and  a  very 
little  water. 

Pimiento  and  Cottage  Cheese  Roast 

2  cupfuls  of  cooked  Lima  beans.     3  canned  pimientos  chopped, 
j  pound  of  cottage  cheese.  Bread  crumbs. 

Salt. 

Put  the  first  three  ingredients  through  a  meat  chopper.  Mix 
thoroughly  and  add  bread  crumbs  until  it  is  stiff  enough  to  form 
into  a  roll.  Brown  in  the  oven,  basting  occasionally  with  butter 
or  other  fat,  and  water. 

Cottage  Cheese  and  Nut  Roast 

1  cupful  of  cottage  cheese.  2  tablespoonfuls  of  chopped 
1  cupful  of  chopped  English  onion. 

walnuts.  1  tablespoonful  of  butter. 

1  cupful  of  bread  crumbs.  Juice  of  half  a  lemon. 
Salt  and  pepper. 

Cook  the  onion  in  the  butter  or  other  fat  and  a  little  water 
until  tender.  Mix  the  other  ingredients  and  moisten  with  the 


CHEESE  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD       381 

water  in  which  the  onion  has  been  cooked.     Pour  into  a  shallow 
baking  dish  and  brown  in  the  oven. 

Cheese  Sauce 
(For  use  with  eggs,  milk  toast  or  other  dishes.) 

One  cupful  of  milk,  1  tablespoonful  of  cottage  cheese,  2  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour,  salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

Thicken  the  milk  with  the  flour  and  just 'before  serving  add 
the  cheese,  stirring  until  it  is  melted. 

This  sauce  may  be  used  in  preparing  creamed  eggs  or  for 
ordinary  milk  toast.  The  quantity  of  cheese  in  the  recipe  may 
be  increased,  making  a  sauce  suitable  for  using  with  macaroni  or 
rice. 


INDEX 


Acetic  acid  in  cheese,  247. 
Acid  cocci,  19. 
Acid  fermentation,  17. 
Acid  organisms,  41. 
Acid  peptonizing  organisms,  41. 
Acidity,  in  cheese  and  curd,  57,  58, 
59. 

and  color,  67. 

and  rennet  action,  66. 

and  ripening,  255. 

arid  separation  of  whey,  66. 

and  texture,  67. 

control  of,  64. 

in  milk,  60. 

testing,  60,  61. 
Acidy  cheese,  66. 
Acme  curd  rake,  196. 
Albumin,  10. 
Albumin  cheese,  295. 
Alcohols  in  cheese,  248. 
Alkaline  bacteria,  20. 
Appetitost,  114. 
Ash  of  milk,  11. 
Ayers,  S.  H.  (Thorn  and),  21. 

Babcock,  S.  M.,  201,  237,  248,  295. 
Babcock  test,  327-332. 
Bacillus  botulinus,  370. 

bulgaricus  =  Bacterium    bulgari- 
cum,  18,  279. 

enteritidis,  370. 

subtilis,  20. 
Backstein  cheese,  164. 
Bacteria,  14. 

alkali-producing,  20. 

control  of,  25. 

from  the  air,  23. 

from  the  cow,  23. 

from  the  milker,  24. 

from  the  utensils,  24. 


Bacteria  —  Continued. 

groups  of,  in  milk,  15. 

in  Cheddar  ripening,  252-254. 

inert  type,  20. 

influence   on   yield   of   Cheddar, 
227. 

peptonizing,  20. 

sources  in  milk,  22. 
Bacterium  bulgaricum,  18,  19. 

aerogenes,  18. 

casei,  253. 

coli-communis,  18,  252. 

guntheri,  41. 

lactis  acidi,  18,  41,  252,  254. 

lactis  aerogenes,  252. 

liquefaciens,  20. 

prodigiosus,  20. 
Baer,  U.  S.,   and   W.   L.   Carlyle, 

12. 

Baker's  cheese,  105. 
Bang,  Ivar,  39. 
Bang's  theory  of  casein,  37. 
Barite,  baryta,  159. 
Barnard  curd  mill,  208. 
Benson,  Miles,  163. 
Bergey,  D.  H.,  16. 
Besana,  C.,  29. 
Block  Swiss,  285. 
Blue  label,  109. 
Blue- veined  cheeses,  150. 
Board  of  Health  lactometer,  336. 
Boards  of    Trade    (Cheese),    349, 

350. 
Boekhout,  J.  W.  J.,  and  J.  J.  Ott 

de  Vries,  174. 
Bondon  cheese,  94. 
Bosworth,  Alfred  W.,  37-38, 40, 126, 

251. 

Bosworth,  A.  W.,  and  M.  J.  Prucha, 
249. 


383 


384 


INDEX 


Bosworth,  A.  W.,  and  L.   L.  Van 

Slyke,  40. 

Bosworth's  theory  of  casein,  37. 
Branding  cheese,  360. 
Breeds  of  cows,  milk  from,  6. 
Brick  cheese,  86,  136,    164  to  169, 
358. 

making,  165. 

qualities,  167. 

ripening,  167. 

score-card,  169. 

yield,  169. 
Brie,  American,  134-136. 

French,  117,  131,  132. 
Brindse,  Brinse  cheese,  110. 
Bushnell,  L.  D.,  and  W.  R.  Wright, 

44. 

Buttermilk  cheese,  93. 
Butyric   acid    in  Cheddar   cheese, 

248. 

Butyric  organisms,  21. 
Buying  milk,  343. 

Caciocavallo  cheese,  293. 
California  Jack  cheese,  233. 
Calorimeter  values,  364. 
Camembert    cheese,    86,    111,    117 
to  131,  137. 

acidity  in,  122. 

bacteria  in,  127. 

composition,  128. 

described,  117. 

domestic,  360. 

factory,  129. 

group,  117. 

lot-card,  124,  125. 

making,  118-122. 

ripening,  123. 

Caproic  acid  in  cheese,  136. 
Carres  affines,  114. 
Casein,  denned  chemically,  33. 

acted  on  by  acid,  33. 

in  cheese  ripening,  249. 

in  milk  and  cheese,  9. 

Robertson's  theory,  34. 

test  (Hart),  334. 
Caseinogen,  35. 
Catalase,  11. 
Chapais,  J.  C.,  137. 


Cheddar  cheese,  79,  86,   173,   184 
to  275,  358,  368. 

acidity  test  for,  190. 
§  acidy,  266,  270. 

American,  230. 

body  in,  271,  273. 

boxes  for,  264. 

calorimeter  studies  of,  368. 

cheddaring  curd  for,  204-207. 

color  in,  270. 

composition  of,  223. 

cooking  curd  for,  195-200. 

corky,  199. 

cutting  curd  for,  193. 

defects  in,  265. 

drawing  whey,  200. 

dressing,  216. 

dry  body  in,  267. 

English,  173. 

feedy  flavors  in,  265. 

finish  in,  271. 

firming  curd  for,  201-204. 

flavor  of,  221. 

food  value  of,  362-365. 

fruity  flavors  in,  266. 

gas  in  curd  for,  219. 

gas  in  milk  for,  217,  219,  269. 

gassy,  268. 

hooping  curd  for,  212. 

hot-iron  test  for,  201,  208. 

judging,  271. 

losses  in,  262,  263. 

lot-card  for,  184,  187. 

matting,  204. 

milk  for,  186. 

milling,  207. 

moisture  content  of,  228,  258. 

mottled,  221,  270. 

packing  curd  for,  202. 

paraffining,  263. 

pin-holes  in,  189. 

pressing,  213. 

quality  in,  221,  272-273. 

ripening  milk  for,  189  to  192. 

ripening  of,  247  to  263.  , 

salting  curd  for,  211. 

score-card  for,  271,  273,  275. 

seamy  color  in,  214,  221. 

setting,  192. 


INDEX 


385 


Cheddar  cheese  —  Continued. 

shipping,  264. 

starter  for,  190,  191. 

sweet  flavor  in,  266. 

texture  of,  267. 

variations  of  process,  229. 

yield,  224,  225. 
Cheese,  and  health,  369. 

and  meals,  367. 

and  price  of,  373. 

boxes,  357. 

canned,  372. 

care  in  home,  372. 

choice  of,  370-371. 

classification  of,  81-85. 

color,  56. 

composition-table,  86,  364. 

definition  of,  1. 

digestibility  of,  368. 

fondue,  375. 

food  value  of,  362-367. 

fuel  value  of,  365. 

history  of,  4. 

in  dietaries,  370-374. 

in  the  household,  361-381. 

knife,  205. 

names,  81. 

poisoning,  370. 

price,  323,  357. 

problems,  3. 

processed,  84. 

ripening  (see  varietal  descriptions) . 

roast,  380. 

salad,  378,  379. 

sandwich,  371,  378. 

sauce,  374,  381. 

souffle,  376. 

total  consumption  of,  362. 

trier,  272. 

varieties,  3. 

with  sour-milk  flavor,  89. 

yield  basis  for  buying  milk,  343. 
Cheese-making,  an  art,  2. 

a  science,  3. 

Chemistry  of  rennet  action,  33-40. 
Cheshire,  184. 
Clabber  cheese,  90. 
Clark,  W.  M.,  284. 
Classification  of  cheese,  81  to  85. 
2c 


Club  cheese,  85,  231. 
Cold-storage,  356,  361. 
Colon-aerogenes  group,  18. 
Color,  56. 
Colostrum,  18. 
Commercial  starter,  43. 
Composition  of  Brick,  169. 

Camembert,  128. 

Cheddar,  223. 

Cottage,  92. 

Cream,  108. 

Limburger,  147. 

NeufcMtel,  105,  107. 

Roquefort,  151. 

Swiss,  287. 

Conn,  H.  W.,  16,  23,  152. 
Connecticut     (Storrs)     Exp.     Sta. 

Kept.,  7,  16. 
Constituents  of  milk,  7. 
Cooking  curd,  77. 

for  Cheddar,  195. 

for  Swiss,  281. 

Cooperative  organizations,  309. 
Cornalba,  G.,  293. 
Cottage  cheese,  2,  86,  368,  379-381. 

discussed,  90-93. 
Coulommiers  cheese,  111,  117,  131, 

132. 

Cow-brand  cheese,  109. 
Cream  cheese,  108. 
Curd,  9. 

breaking,  75. 

chemistry  of,  33  to  40. 

cooking  of,  77. 

cutting,  75. 

draining,  79. 

fork,  210. 

knives,  77  (Fig.  11),  194,  195. 
Curdling  period,  74. 
Curd-making,  55. 

factors  in,  55. 
Curd  mills,  207  to  209. 
Curd  pail,  213. 
Curd  rakes,  196. 
Curd  scoop,  213. 
Curd  sink,  204. 
Curd  test,  26. 

Currie,    James    N.,   149,   150,   155, 
156. 


386 


INDEX 


Cutting,  W.  B.,  159. 
Cutting  curd,  75-77. 

for  Brick,  165. 

for  Cheddar,  193-195. 

for  Edam,  175. 

for  Isigny,  135. 

for  Limburger,  141. 

for  Roquefort,  154. 

for  Swiss,  280-281. 

Dahlberg,  Arnold  O.,  98. 

Daisies  (cheese),  230. 

Danish  cheese,  173. 

Davis,  B.  J.  (and  L.  A.  Rogers),  16. 

Dean,  H.  H.,  163. 

Decker,  John  W.,  217. 

Derbyshire,  184. 

Diastase,  11. 

Digestibility  of  cheese,  367. 

Diseased  cows,  effect  on  milk,  13. 

Doane,  C.  F.,  64,  263,  296. 

Doane,  C.  F.,  and  E.  E.  Eldredge, 

279. 
Doane,  C.  F.,  and  H.  W.  Lawson, 

169,  365. 
Dotterrer,  W.  D.,  and  R.  S.  Breed, 

301. 

Dox,  Arthur  W.,  126,  150. 
Draining,  79. 

Camembert,  121-122. 

Cheddar,  195-206. 

Cottage,  91. 

Limburger,  142. 

Neufchatel,  97. 

Roquefort,  154. 

Swiss,  280-282. 

Draining   cloths,   for   Jack   cheese, 
235. 

for  Neufchatel,  97. 

for  Swiss,  282. 

Draining  rack  for  Neufchatel,  97. 
Dressing  Cheddar,  216. 
Dry  body,  267. 
Duclaux,  E.,  39,  33-40. 
Duclaux's  theory  of  casein,  36. 
Dutch  cheeses,  173. 
Dutton,  G.  C.,  184. 

Eagle  brand,  109. 


Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Otto  Rahn,  112. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  R.  H.  Shaw,  7. 

Edam  cheese,  173,  174  to  180,  366. 

Eldredge,  E.  E.,  and  L.  A.  Rogers, 
284. 

Ellenberger,    H.    B.,    and    M.    R. 
Tolstrup,  296. 

Elliott,  W.  J.,  310. 

Emmenthal  or  Emmenthaler,  276 

English  dairy  cheese,  238. 

Enzymes  in  cheese-ripening,  250. 
in  milk,  11. 

Equipment   list   for    Cheddar   fac- 
tory, 307. 

Esten,  W.  M.,  41. 

Esten,  W.  M.,  and  C.  J.  Mason,  16, 
129. 

Esters  in  Cheddar  cheese,  248,  254. 

Export  Cheddar,  230. 

Exportation  of  cheese,  321. 

Factory,  297-309. 

arrangement,  302-306. 

boiler-room  in,  301. 

building,  299. 

cleanliness  in,  307. 

cooperative,  308. 

curing-rooms,  300. 

drainage,  298. 

equipment  list,  307. 

heating,  300. 

location  of,  298,  299. 

organization,  308-309. 

proprietary,  308. 

supplies,  list  for,  307. 

system,  313,  320. 

ventilation  of,  300. 

water  in,  298. 
Farm  cheese,  133. 
Farrington,    E.     H.,     and    G.     H. 

Benkendorf,  310. 
Farrington,  E.  H.,  and  G.  J.  Davis, 

298. 

Farrington,  Harvey,  314. 
Farrington's  test,  62. 
Fascetti,  G.,  288. 
Fat-basis  for  buying  milk,  344. 
Fat  and  casein  ratio,  224,  226. 
Fat  and  cheese  yield,  225,  226. 


INDEX 


387 


Fat  and  water  content,  86. 
Fat  in  cheese-ripening,  86. 
Fat  in  milk,  8. 
Fat  loss,  226-227. 

plus  two  method,  345. 
Fat  test,  327-334. 
Feeds,  11. 
Fermentation,  15. 
Fermentation  test,  26. 
Ferments,  15,  29. 
Filled  cheese,  315,  361. 
Fisk,  Walter  W.,  68,  89,  228. 
"Flats,"  230. 
Flavor  of  cheese,  368,  371. 
Flavor  of  feeds,  11. 
Fleischmann,  W.,  152. 
Food  value  of  cheese,  362-367. 
Forbes,  E.  B.,  and  M.  H.  Keith,  9, 

33  to  40. 

Formic  acid  in  Cheddar,  248. 
Frandsen,  J.  H.,  23,  89. 
Frandsen,  J.  H.,  and  T.  Thorsen,  89. 
Fraser,  W.  J.,  23. 
Fraser  hoop,  212. 
Frestadius,  A.,  159. 
Freudenreich,    E.    von,   and    Orla 

Jensen,  284. 
Full  skim  Cheddar,  242. 


Galactase,  11. 

Gang  press,  214. 

Gases  in  cheese-ripening,  249. 

Gassy  curd,  146,  220. 

Gassy  milk,  219. 

Geographical  distribution  of  cheese 

factories,  315. 

Germicidal  effect  of  milk,  22. 
Gervais  cheese,  109. 
Getman,  Louis,  139. 
Gex  cheese,  164. 
Glaesler  (Swiss),  286. 
Glymol,  334. 
Goat  cheese,  109. 
Gorgonzola  cheese,  158  to  161. 
Gorini,  Constantine,  288. 
Gosselin  curd  mill,  208. 
Gouda  cheese,  173,  180  to  183. 
Gournay  cheese,  114. 
Grana  cheese,  288. 


Granular  curd  cheese,  232. 

"Green"  cheese,  247. 

Gruyfcre,  276. 

Guthrie,  E.  S.,  and  W.  W.  Fisk,  44. 

Haecker,  T.  L.,  180. 

Half-skim  Cheddar,  243. 

Hall,  W.  W.,  187. 

Halliburton,  35. 

Hammarsten,  Olof,  39,  33-40. 

Hammarsten's    theory    of    rennet 

action,  35. 
Hand  cheese,  112. 
Hard  cheese,  172. 
Harding,  H.  A.,  23,  254. 
Harding,  H.  A.,  and  M.  J.  Prucha, 

252. 
Harding,  H.  A.,  J.  K.  Wilson,  and 

G.  A.  Smith,  25. 
Harding,  H.  A.,  and  G.  A.  Smith, 

306. 

Harris  curd  mill,  209. 
Hart,  E.  B.,  38,  40,  91,  201,  249, 

253,  255,  256,  334. 
Hart  casein  test,  334. 
Harz  cheese,  112. 
Hastings,  E.  G.,  21,  44,  237. 
Hastings,    E.    G.,    and    Alice    C. 

Evans,  60. 
Hastings,  E.  G.,  Alice  C.  Evans,  and 

E.  B.  Hart,  253,  255. 
Hay  ward,  H.,  180. 
Heat  in  cheese-making,  77-78,  87, 

91,  195,  281. 
Heinemann,  P.  G.,  254. 
Hibbard,   B.   H.,  and   A.   Hobson, 

349,  358-359. 

History  of  cheese-making,  4,  311. 
Hoops,  for  Camembert,  121. 
for  Cheddar,  212. 
for  Roquefort,  154. 
for  Swiss,  278. 
Hosl,  J.,  39. 
Hot-iron  test,  201. 
Household,  cheese  in,  362-381. 
Hunziker,  O.  F.,  22. 
Hydrogen  in  Cheddar,  254. 

Importation  of  cheese,  321. 
Inert  bacteria,  20. 


388 


INDEX 


Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.,  310. 
d'Isigny  cheese,  132,  134-137. 
Italian  cheeses,  288-291. 

Jack  cheese,  184,  233-236. 
Jensen,  Orla,  284. 
Junker  curd  mill,  209. 

Kascoval  cheese,  164. 

Kiernan,  Mrs.  E.  E.,  113. 

Kikkoji,  36,  39. 

King,  F.  H.,  and  E.  H.  Farrington, 

12. 
Kosher  cheese,  136. 

Lactic  starter,  41-54. 
Lactometer,  335. 

Board  of  Health  type,  336. 

Quevenne  type,  335. 
Lactose  (see  Milk-sugar),  10. 
Langworthy,  C.  F.,  and  C.  L.  Hunt, 

363,  372. 

Larsen,  C.,  and  W.  White,  44. ' 
Lauder,  A.,  and  A.  Cunningham,  22. 
Laws  about  cheese,  359-361. 
Laws  about  milk,  347. 
Leicestershire,  184. 
Levin,  W.,  370. 
Leyden  cheese,  238. 
License  for  cheese-maker,  361. 
Liederkranz  cheese,  134,  138. 
Ligeon,  X.,  170. 

Limburger,   86,    136,    139  to    147, 
358,  371. 

factory,  139-140. 

making  process,  140-143. 

qualities,  145. 

ripening,  143-145. 

wrapping,  145. 

yield  of,  147. 
Lindet,  L.,  38,  39. 
Lipase,  11. 
Livarot  cheese,  135. 
Loevenhart,  A.  S.,  36,  39. 
Long-horn  (Cheddar)    cheese,   230. 
Lot-card,  for  Camembert,  124-125. 

for  Cheddar,  184,  187. 

for  starter,  53. 

Macaroni  and  cheese,  377. 
Maine  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.,  7. 


Malakoff  cheese,  94,  114. 
Manns,  A.  G.,  7. 
Manns  test,  231. 
Manufacturer's  brand,  360-361. 
Marketing,  343-361. 

laws  concerning,  360. 
Marre,  E.,  151. 
Marschall  test,  62. 
Marshall,  C.  E.,  189,  217. 
Marty,  G.,  165. 
Matheson,  K.  J.,  F.  R.  Cammack, 

100. 
Matheson,    K.    J.,    C.    Thorn,  and 

J.  N.  Currie,  94. 
Matting,  204. 

Mayo,  N.  F.,  and  C.  G.  Elling,  289. 
Maze,  P.,  116. 
McAdam,  Robert,  314. 
McNaughton,  Janet,  132. 
McPherson  curd  agitator,  196". 
Mercantile  exchanges,  351. 
Michels,  John,  89. 
Michigan  Agr.  Law,  13. 
Milk,  acid  fermentation  of,  17. 

acidity  in,  60. 

albumin,  10. 

ash,  11. 

bacteria  in,  21. 

bacterial  contamination  of,  21. 

buying,  343. 

casein  in,  9,  224. 

clean,  22. 

colostrum  in,  13. 

composition  of,  5,  6,  56,  222. 

constituents,  7. 

denned,  5. 

enzymes  in,  11. 

fat  in,  8,  224. 

flavors  in,  11. 

from  diseased  cows,  13. 

germicidal  property,  22. 

lactose  in,  10. 

moisture  in,  8. 

odors  in,  12. 

paying  for,  343. 

quality  in,  5. 

sugar  (lactose),  10. 

variation  in  composition,  6. 
Milking  machines,  25. 


INDEX 


389 


Milk-sugar,  10. 
Moisture  and  acidity,  70. 
Moisture  control,  68,  69. 
Moisture  limits  in  cheese,  358. 
Moisture  test  (Troy's),  337-342. 
Molding  machines  for  Neufchatel, 

98. 

Molding  Neufchatel,  104. 
Molds  in  Cheddar,  271. 

in  milk,  21. 

Monrad,  J.  H.,  112,  114,  180. 
Moore,  V.  A.,  and  A.  R.  Ward,  217. 
Morrow,  G.  A.,  and  A.  G.  Manns,  7. 
Mottled  Cheddar,  221,  270. 
Mucors,  93. 

Munster,  147,  148,  366. 
Mysost,  293,  295. 

Natural  starter,  43. 
Neufchatel,  80,  85,  86,  89,  371. 

American,  95. 

domestic,  95,  106. 

factory,  95. 

group  discussed,  94  to  109. 

packages,  98. 

ripened  form,  114-116,  117. 

yield,  107. 

New  Jersey  Exp.  Sta.  Kept.,  7. 
New    York    (Geneva)     Exp.    Sta. 

Kept.,  7,  8,  174. 
New   York    Mercantile   Exchange, 

351-356. 

New  York  Price  Current,  315,  351. 
New   York    Produce    Review,  165, 

233,  280. 
New    York   State    Department  of 

Agriculture,  13. 
Niszler  (Swiss)  cheese,  286. 
Nut  cheese,  109. 

Odors  absorbed  by  milk,  12. 

Oidium  (Oospora)  lactis,  113,  116, 
131,  136,  163. 

Oka  cheese,  169. 

Olimento  cheese,  109. 

Olive  cheese,  109. 

Olson,  G.  A.,  74. 

Ontario  Agricultural  College  Bulle- 
tins, 7,  228. 

Over-ripe  milk,  218. 


Pails,  24,  25. 
Paracasein,  35,  250. 
Paraffining  Cheddar,  263. 
Parmesan   cheese,   2,   80,   86,    173, 

288-291. 

Pasteurization,  11,  26,  45,  229,  396. 
Pasteurized  Cheddar,  229. 
Pasty  body,  270. 
Paying  for  milk,  343-346. 
Penicillium  brevicaule,  129. 

camemberti,  116,  126,  127,  131. 

camemberti  var.  rogeri,  116. 

candidum,  116. 

roqueforti,  155,  156,  159,  163. 
Pennsylvania  pot  cheese,  113. 
Pepsin,  30,  33. 
Peptonizing  bacteria,  20. 
Percival,  J.,  and  G.  Heather  Mason, 

163. 

Perishable  varieties,  356. 
Peroxidase,  11. 
Petit  Carre,  94,  114. 
Petite  Suisse,  94,  114. 
Petits  Bondons,  114. 
Petry,  E.,  36,  39. 
Philadelphia  cream,  109,  360. 
Picnic  cheese,  230. 
Pimiento  cheese,  85,  101. 
Pimientos  in  Cheddar,  238. 
Pirn-olive  cheese,  109. 
Pineapple  cheese,  184,  238. 
Pohl  curd  mill,  208. 
Poisoning  by  cheese,  370. 
Pont  1'Eveque  cheese,  135. 
Pooling  method,  345. 
Port  du  Salut  cheese,  136,   169   to 

171. 

Pot  cheese,  113. 
Pouriau,  A.  F.,  82,  114. 
Press  cloths,  212. 
Presses,  214,  215. 
Prices,   distribution  of,  357-359. 

yearly  average  of,  323. 
Primost,  295. 
Processed  cheese,  84. 
Propionic  acid  in  cheese,  247,  248. 
Provolono,  294. 

Prucha,  M.  J.,  and  H.  M.  Weeter, 
23. 


390 


INDEX 


Ptyalin,  30. 
Publow,  C.  A.  60. 
Publow's  test,  62. 
Pure  culture  starter,  43. 

Quality  in  Cheddar,  272-273. 

in  Edam,  180. 

in  Limburger,  145. 

in  milk,  6. 

in  Swiss,  286. 
Quevenne  lactometer,  335. 

Rabbit  cheese,  372. 

Raffine  cheese,  137,  138. 

Recipes  for  cooking  cheese,  375-381. 

Reductase,  11. 

Regianito  cheese,  292. 

Reich,  R.,  363. 

Rennet,  9,  30,  312. 

action,  33  to  40. 

action,  chemistry  of 

action  delayed  by,  73. 

adding,  72. 

amount  to  use,  72. 

extract,  31,  279. 

for  Camembert,  121. 

for  Cheddar,  192. 

for  Limburger,  141. 

for  Neufchatel,  100. 

for  Roquefort,  153. 

for  Swiss,  279. 

in  ripening  Cheddar,  250. 

strength  of,  72. 

temperature  of  using,  71. 

test,  62. 
Rennin,  30. 
Rice  and  cheese,  377. 
Ricotte,  11,  295. 
Robbiola,  117. 

Robertson,  T.  Brailsford,  38. 
Robertson's  theory  of  casein,  34. 
Roger,  Georges,  116. 
Rogers,  L.  A.,  16. 
Rogers,  L.  A.,  and  B.  J.  Davis,  16. 
Roquefort"  cheese,  2,  86,   150,   158, 
368,  369,  371. 

acidity  for,  153. 

caves  for,  151. 

composition  of,  151. 


Roquefort  cheese —  Continued. 

curdling  for,  153. 

cutting  curd  for,  154. 

draining,  154. 

from  cow's  milk,  152. 

milk  for,  153. 

mold  for,  154. 

ripening  of,  156-157. 

salting,  155. 

setting,  153. 

temperature,  153. 

Ruddick,  J.  A.,  and  G.  H.  Baur,  26. 
Russell,  H.  L.,  189,  217. 
Rusty  spots,  74,'  306. 

Sage  cheese,  239-241. 

Salt  in  Cheddar  ripening,  259. 

Salting,  Camembert,  122. 

Cheddar,  211. 

Limburger,  142. 

Neufchatel,  102. 

Roquefort,  155. 

Swiss,  283. 
Sammis,  J.   L.,  95,  228,  296,  337, 

347,  349. 
Sammis,    J.  L.,  and  A.  T.  Bruhn, 

11,  41,  57,  229. 
Sammis,   J.  L.,  S.   K.  Suzuki  and 

F.  W.  Laabs,  33. 
Sammis'  method,  229.    * 
Sap  sago,  294. 
Schenk,  C.,  165. 
Schmidt-Nielson,  S.,  36,  39. 
Schmierkase,  90. 
Schroeder,  E.  C.,  99. 
Schweitzer  cheese,  276. 
Score-card,  for  Brick,  169. 

for  Cheddar,  271. 

for  Limburger,  146. 

for  starter,  51. 

for  Swiss,  287. 
Sediment  test,  27,  28. 
Semi-hard  cheeses,  149-171. 
Setting,  71. 

Shaw,  R.  H.  (and  C.  H.  Eckles),  7. 
Sheep's  milk,  151,  152. 
Sheep's  milk  cheese,  150. 
Sheldon,  J.  P.,  161. 
Shot-gun  cans,  97. 


INDEX 


391 


Size  factor  in  ripening,  263. 
Skim  cheese,  89,  361,  366. 

bacteria,  134-147. 

Cheddar,  241-246. 

Neufch&tel,  105,  107. 

ripened  by  molds,  111. 

Soft  cheeses,  82-83,  86. 
Solids  not  fat,  335-337. 
Speed  knife,  217. 
Spiro,  K.,  36,  39. 
Square  cream,  109. 
Standards,  359. 
Starter,  42. 

amount  to  use,  52. 

care  of  milk  for,  47. 

commercial,  43. 

containers  for,  45. 

for  Brick,  165. 

for  Camembert,  121. 

for  Cheddar,  189. 

for  Neufchatel,  99. 

for  Roquefort,  153. 

for  Swiss,  279. 

handling,  42-50. 

lot-card  for,  53. 

"mother,"  47 

natural,  42. 

pasteurization  of,  45. 

propagation  of,  46-48. 

qualities  of,  50. 

score-card  for,  51. 
Startoline,  47. 
State  brands,  360. 
Stevenson,  C.,  29. 
Stilton  cheese,  161-163. 
Stirred  curd  cheese,  232. 
Stocking,  W.  A.,  Jr.,  22,  23,  25. 
Storage  of  cheese,  103. 
Streptococcus  lacticus,  41. 
Streptothrix-actinomyces  group,  21. 
Succinic  acid,  254. 
Suzuki,  S.  K.,  247. 
Sweet  curd  cheese,  236. 
Swiss  cheese,  80,  86,  173,  276-288, 
358,  366,  368,  371. 

block,  278. 

breaking,  281. 

composition,  287. 

curing,  283. 


Swiss  cheese  —  Continued. 

cutting,  280. 

drum,  278. 

eyes  in,  283-285. 

factories,  276-278. 

making  process,  280-283. 

pressing,  282. 

quality  in,  286. 

rennet  for,  279. 

salting,  283. 

score-card  for,  287. 

starter  for,  279. 

testing,  Chapter  XIX,  327. 
Swiss  harp,  278. 

Tests,  acid,  60,  61. 

Babcock,  327-334. 

casein,  334. 

curd,  26. 

fat,  327. 

fermentation,  26. 

Hart,  334. 

hot-iron,  201. 

lactometer,  335-337. 

moisture  in  cheese,  337-342. 

rennet,  62. 

sediment,  27,  28. 

solids  not  fat,  335-337. 

Troy's  moisture,  337-342. 
Thorn,  C.,  117,  154,  155,  158,  372. 
Thorn,  C.,  and  S.  H.  Ayers,  21. 
Thorn,  C.,  and  J.  N.  Currie,  156. 
Thorn,  C.,  J.  N.  Currie,  and  K.  J. 

Matheson,  116,  152. 
Thorn,  C.,  and  K.  J.  Matheson,  149. 
Tinfoil  wrapping,  145. 
Todd,  A.,  and  E.  C.  V.  Cornish,  29. 
Tolstrup,  R.  M.,  91. 
Trappist,  169. 
Trier,  272. 
Troy,  H.  C.,  337. 
Trypsin,  30. 
Twins,  230. 
Tyrein,  35. 

U.  S.  Census  Report,  quoted,  317» 

318  to  322. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbooks,  quoted, 

326. 


392 


INDEX 


U.    S.    Treasury    Dept.    Hygienic 

Laboratory  Bulletin,  22. 
Utensils,  24. 

Valerianic  acid  in  cheese,  136. 

Van  Dam,  W.,  29,  36,  39. 

Van  Eyck  Machine  Co.,  98. 

Van  Herwerden,  M.,  36,  39. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  8,  223,  224,  225, 
251,  257,  262. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  A.  W.  Bos- 
worth,  9,  36,  39,  40,  249. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  D.  D.  Van 
Slyke,  33. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  E.  B.  Hart, 
38,  40,  91,  201,  249,  256. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  C.  A.  Publow, 
310. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  O.  B.  Winter, 
249. 

Vat,  190. 

Vermont  Exp.  Sta.  Rept.,  7. 

Victor  curd  mill,  208. 

Ward,  A.  R.,  217. 
Washed  curd  process,  236. 
Water  in  milk,  8. 
Welsh  rabbit,  377. 


Wensleydale,  184. 

Whey,  222. 

Whey  butter,  295. 

Whey  cheese,  85,  295. 

Whey  siphon,  202. 

Whey  strainer,  202,  203. 

Whey  tank,  301,  303. 

White  cheese,  109. 

Williams,  Jesse,  313. 

Wilson  hoop,  212. 

Wing,  Lois  W.,  25. 

Wisconsin  Agr.  Law,  ^13,  347. 

Wisconsin  curd  test,  26. 

Wisconsin  pasteurized  Cheddar,  229. 

Wisconsin  Sta.  Bui.,  quoted,  7,  8,  10, 

26,  251,  253. 

Working  of  curd,  102,  135. 
Wuethrich,  F.,  165. 

Yeasts,  21. 

Yield  of,  Brick,  169. 

Camembert,  130. 
,  Cheddar,  226. 

Limburger,  146. 

Neufchatel  (whole  milk),  107. 

Swiss,  287. 
Young  America,  230. 

Zumkehr,  P.  139. 


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